Comparison between two scoring methods to assess tail damage of docked pig carcasses during postmortem inspection in Ireland.

Background: Tail inspection in the abattoir is a tool to help determine the welfare status of pigs. However, methodologies vary widely. Moreover, meat inspection is moving from palpation and incision towards visual-only (VIS) examination. This study investigated whether a VIS examination was sufficient to detect tail damage compared to handling (HAND), which ensures examination of all aspects of the tail. Method: The severity of tail skin damage (0 [undamaged] - 4 [partial/full loss of tail]) and presence/absence of bruises was scored using both methods after scalding/dehairing of 5498 pig carcasses. Results: There was a good relationship between methods when evaluating tail skin damage (sensitivity, 82.48%; specificity, 99.98%; accuracy, 98.98%; correlation ρ = 0.84). The results were similar for the presence of bruises (sensitivity, 74.98%; specificity, 99.09%; accuracy, 89.94%; correlation ρ = 0.79). However, the percentage of tails classified as undamaged was higher using VIS (69.9%) than HAND (63.55%) examination. Conversely, VIS detected fewer mild lesions (score 1 - 13.64%; score 2 - 11.73%) than HAND (score 1 - 15.21%; score 2 - 15.53%). A higher percentage of bruises was detected using HAND than VIS (37.96% vs. 29.03%). Conclusions: Visual evaluation is a valid alternative to handling evaluation of carcass tail damage and bruising.

Comparison of single- and double-spaced feeders with regard to damaging behavior in pigs.

This work compared the behavior and performance of 24 groups of 12 pigs kept in pens with either a DOUBLE [one feed space aligned with the front wall of the pen (WALL), and one immediately adjacent (IN)] or SINGLE (WALL only) spaced feeder, from weaning until slaughter. Pens were equipped with a rack of fresh grass and a rubber toy (weaning phase) or a wooden board (finishing phase). Every 2 weeks, interaction with the enrichment, aggressive, harmful, and play behaviors were recorded for 5 min, four times a day. In addition, the pigs were individually assessed every 2 weeks for ear, tail, and flank injuries using a 4-point scale. The duration of feeder occupancy, feed space occupancy, number of and duration of feeding bouts, and aggressive behavior at the feeder were recorded continuously from video recordings (two times while in the weaner stage and two times while in the finisher stage, one camera/pen; 1 h per occasion). Individual body weight was recorded at weaning, transfer, and slaughter, and feed delivery was recorded daily at the pen level; from these measurements, average daily gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio were calculated. Data were analyzed using SAS v9.4. There was no effect of treatment on damaging behaviors. Pigs in DOUBLE had worse tail lesion scores on 6 of the 9 recording days (P < 0.001), but values rarely exceeded 1. Total feeder occupancy tended to be longer in DOUBLE than in SINGLE (P = 0.06). DOUBLE selected the IN feed space more often than WALL regarding the number of feeding bouts (P < 0.001). During feeding, pigs in DOUBLE received fewer aggressive behaviors than SINGLE (P < 0.001) and experienced fewer displacements than SINGLE (P < 0.001). Although both experimental groups had a similar weight at slaughter (P > 0.05), the FCR was lower in DOUBLE than in SINGLE (P < 0.05). These data suggest that doubling space at the feeder to two spaces/12 pigs reduced aggression and displacement behaviors at the feeder, indicating less competition for food. However, increasing feeder space was not a management strategy that could ensure reduced tail biting on commercial pig farms.

Indicators of improved gestation housing of sows. Part I: Effects on behaviour, skin lesions, locomotion, and tear staining.

Commercial gestation housing systems for sows generally fail to cater fully for their needs in terms of comfort or the ability to perform highly motivated behaviours, which can lead to chronic stress and an impairment to welfare. We compared a typical gestation system (CONTROL) with an IMPROVED one as regards oral stereotypies, aggressive behaviour, skin lesions, locomotion, and tear staining. Sows were mixed into 12 stable groups (six groups per treatment, 20 sows per group), 29 days post-service in pens with free-access, full-length individual feeding/lying stalls. CONTROL pens had fully slatted concrete floors, with two blocks of wood and two chains suspended in the group area. IMPROVED pens were the same but with rubber mats and a length of manila rope in each feeding stall, and straw provided in three racks in the group area. Direct observations of oral stereotypical (30 instantaneous scans per sow per day) and aggressive (all-occurrence sampling, 3 h per sow per day) behaviours were conducted 72 h post-mixing, in mid and late gestation. Skin lesions were counted 24 h and three weeks post-mixing, and in late gestation. Sows' locomotion (locomotory ability) was scored using a visual analogue scale in mid and late gestation. Right and left eye tear staining was scored in late gestation. Indications of better welfare in IMPROVED sows included performance of fewer oral stereotypies in mid and late gestation, and lower tear stain scores. These sows performed more aggression in late gestation, which was associated with access to enrichment, but skin lesion counts were not affected. Thus, the changes made in the IMPROVED treatment benefitted aspects of sow welfare.

Indicators of improved gestation housing of sows. Part II: Effects on physiological measures, reproductive performance and health of the offspring.

Prenatal stress is the mechanism through which poor welfare of pregnant sows has detrimental effects on the health and resilience of their piglets. We compared two gestation housing systems (IMPROVED versus [conventional] CONTROL) in terms of sow stress and welfare indicators and sought to determine whether potential benefits to the sows would translate into improved offspring health. Sows were mixed into 12 stable groups (six groups per treatment, 20 sows per group) 29 days post-service in pens with free-access, full-length individual feeding/lying-stalls. CONTROL pens had fully slatted concrete floors, with two blocks of wood and two chains suspended in the group area. IMPROVED pens were the same but with rubber mats and manila rope in each stall, and straw provided in three racks in the group area. Saliva was collected from each sow on day 80 of pregnancy and analysed for haptoglobin. Hair cortisol was measured in late gestation. Sows' right and left eyes were scored for tear staining in mid lactation and at weaning. Numbers of piglets born alive, dead, mummified, and total born were recorded. Piglets were weighed and scored for vitality and intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) at birth. Presence of diarrhoea in farrowing pens was scored every second day throughout the suckling period. IMPROVED sows had lower haptoglobin levels and tear-stain scores during lactation. IMPROVED sows produced fewer mummified piglets, and these had significantly lower IUGR scores, and scored lower for diarrhoea than piglets of CONTROL sows. Hence, improving sow welfare during gestation improved the health and performance of their offspring.

Freedom to Move: Free Lactation Pens Improve Sow Welfare.

Farrowing crates present a major animal welfare problem. This study investigated the effects of temporary confinement at farrowing on sow welfare and aimed to determine whether this type of system could improve sow welfare through increased freedom of movement. Sows were housed in one of two farrowing accommodation treatments: conventional farrowing crates (Control) or free lactation pens (Free). Sows in the Control treatment were confined from entry to weaning, a period of five weeks. Sows in the Free treatment were temporarily confined from before farrowing (approximately 24 h) until day 4 post-partum, after which time the crate was opened, and they had increased freedom of movement. Sow physical measures (weight, back-fat thickness, hoof score, locomotion score and tear stain score) were measured at entry to farrowing accommodation and at weaning. Salivary cortisol concentration was measured throughout lactation. Farrowing duration and sow posture (Days 1, 3, 7 and 34 after entry) were recorded. Between entry and weaning, locomotion scores significantly increased for sows housed in the Control treatment compared with those housed in Free lactation pens (p < 0.01). Sows in the Free treatment were observed to use all orientations in the pen, showing that when more space is made available to them, they will choose to utilise the space. Tear staining under the left eye was found to be less in Free sows at weaning (p = 0.05), indicating reduced stress. However, salivary cortisol concentration was higher in Free sows overall; cortisol is affected by both positive and negative stimuli, and so, this may be due to factors other than stress, such as higher levels of activity and mental stimulation. These results suggest that free lactation pens can benefit sow welfare; increased freedom of movement throughout lactation can improve sow locomotory health, and as suggested by improved tear stain scores, sow stress levels may be reduced in this type of system compared with conventional farrowing crates.

Risk Factors for Chronic Stress in Sows Housed in Groups, and Associated Risks of Prenatal Stress in Their Offspring.

Chronic stress has a detrimental effect on sow welfare and productivity, as well as on the welfare and resilience of their piglets, mediated prenatally. Despite this, the specific risk factors for chronic stress in pregnant sows are understudied. Group-housed pregnant sows continuously face numerous challenges associated with aspects of the physical (group type and size, flooring, feeding system) and social (stocking density, mixing strategy) environment. There are many well-known potent stressors for pigs that likely contribute to chronic, physiological stress, including overcrowding, hot temperatures, feed restriction, inability to forage, uncomfortable floors, and poor handling. Some of these stressors also contribute to the development of production diseases such as lameness, which in turn are also likely causes of chronic stress because of the associated pain and difficulty accessing resources. The aim of this review is to discuss potential risk factors for chronic stress in pregnant sows such as space allowance, group size and type (stable/dynamic), feeding level, lameness, pen design, feed system, enrichment and rooting material, floor type, the quality of stockmanship, environmental conditions, and individual sow factors. The mechanisms of action of both chronic and prenatal stress, as well as the effects of the latter on offspring are also discussed. Gaps in existing research and recommendations for future work are outlined.

Improving young pig welfare on-farm: The Five Domains Model.

Considering welfare through the "neonatal and nursery pig perspective" is an exciting approach and one that resonates with consumers. Overlaying this with the Five Domains Model, as we suggest in this review, points to practical on-farm improvements that provide each pig the opportunity to experience positive mental states. The Five Domains Model is broken into physical and functional states, which include Domain 1: Nutrition, Domain 2: Physical Environment, Domain 3: Health, and Domain 4: Behavioral Interaction, and Domain 5: Mental State. The Five Domains Model can build on the breadth and depth of swine welfare science to highlight opportunities to improve welfare on-farm. In Domain 1, management of increasingly large litters is considered, with examples of sow vs. artificial rearing, colostrum quality and quantity, and creep feed management strategies. Efforts can result in positive mental states such as feeling full and content and the ability to experience the pleasure of drinking and food tastes and smells. Domain 2 considers space complexity and access to key resources, along with thermal and physical amenities, to promote feelings of physical comfort. Domain 3 considers pig health in three broads, yet inter-linking categories 1) congenital and hereditary health, 2) environmental pathogen load, and 3) colostrum quality and quantity, and its effect on the microbiome. Improvements can result in a pig that displays vitality and feels healthy. Domain 4 provides the pig opportunities to express its rich behavioral repertoire, specifically positive social interactions, play, and exploration. These efforts can result in pigs feeling calm, safe, comfortable, having companionship, engaged, interested, and rewarded. In conclusion, using the Five Domains Model can highlight numerous opportunities to improve current and future housing and management through the "neonatal and nursery pig perspective" with a focus on inducing positive mental states that can result in improved quality of life and welfare state.

Considering welfare through the "neonatal and nursery pig perspective" is an exciting approach. Overlaying this with the Five Domains Model, as we suggest in this review, points to practical on-farm improvements that provide each pig the opportunity to experience positive mental states. The first four domains consider physical and functional states; with Domains 1 through 4 being Nutrition, Physical Environment, Health, and Behavioral Interaction, respectively. All interweave with Domain 5: Mental state. A plethora of examples are discussed; Domain 1 critiques optimal colostrum intake, and milk and feed quality that result in feelings of fullness and contentment. Domain 2 considers space complexity, key resource access, and thermal and physical amenities with these efforts resulting in feelings of comfort and agency. Domain 3 discusses congenital and hereditary health, environmental pathogen load, colostrum quality and quantity effects on the microbiome, and how these improve pig vitality and feelings of good health and fitness. Domain 4 discusses opportunities for the pig to express its behavioral repertoire, particularly positive social interactions, play, and exploration with feelings of control and agency. Improvements will result in pigs feeling calm, safe, comfortable, enjoying companionship, engaged, interested, and leading a rewarding life.

Early Detection of Locomotion Disorders in Gilts Using a Novel Visual Analogue Scale; Associations with Chronic Stress and Reproduction.

Locomotion scoring is crucial for the early detection of lameness, which reduces sow welfare and performance. Our objective was to test the effectiveness of a visual analogue scale (VAS) to measure locomotory ability (OVERALL) compared to a categorical scoring system (CAT) and to investigate associations with hair cortisol and reproductive performance. Locomotion was scored in gilts (n = 51) at service, on day 57 and day 108 of pregnancy, and at weaning, using a VAS (150 mm line: 0 mm (perfect)-150 mm (severely lame)), and a CAT (1 (perfect)-5 (severely lame)). Hair cortisol concentration was measured on day 108 of pregnancy. Reproductive performance data (parity 1-4) were acquired from farm records. VAS detected deviations from optimal locomotion more effectively than the CAT (F3,145 = 2.70; p ≤ 0.05 versus F3,195 = 2.45; p = 0.065). Higher OVERALL scores at service (REG = 0.003 ± 0.0012; F1,48 = 4.25; p ≤ 0.05) and on day 57 (REG = 0.003 ± 0.0013; F1,48 = 6.95; p ≤ 0.05) were associated with higher hair cortisol concentrations on day 108. Positive associations were detected between OVERALL at service and the number of piglets born dead (REG = 0.01 ± 0.006; F1,36 = 4.24; p ≤ 0.05), and total born (REG = 0.1 ± 0.03; F1,120 = 4.88; p ≤ 0.05). The VAS better facilitates early detection of lameness, which could help to prevent detrimental effects, possibly mediated by chronic stress, on reproductive performance.

Effect of environmental enrichment and group size on the water use and waste in grower-finisher pigs.

The grower-finisher stage accounts for 64% of the total on-farm herd water use. Part of this is consumed by the pigs, but a part is also wasted. Drinking water usage and wastage is affected by different factors. We investigated how different group sizes and different levels of enrichment affect water usage (ingested plus wasted), water wastage, behavior and performance in grower-finisher pigs. Pigs (n = 672), 11 weeks of age (77 ± 2 days) were used for the experiment. The effect of group size: SMALL (12 pigs), MEDIUM (24 pigs), and LARGE (48 pigs) was assessed across two levels of enrichment (LOW-wooden post, hanging rubber toy, HIGH-Same as LOW + fresh grass). There was no effect of group size on water use or wastage. Pigs with HIGH enrichment (10.4 ± 0.4 L/pig/day) used less water than LOW enrichment (11.0 ± 0.4 L/pig/day; p < 0.001). The water wastage/drinker/hour was lower in pens with HIGH enrichment than LOW (p = 0.003). The drinking bout number (p = 0.037) and total occupancy/hour (p = 0.048) was also higher for pens with LOW than HIGH enrichment. Aggressive and harmful behaviour were performed less in LARGE groups and pens with HIGH enrichment. Thus, HIGH enrichment allowance reduced water usage and wastage so may have benefits for the environment, as well as animal welfare.

Like Mother Like Child: Do Fearful Sows Have Fearful Piglets?

Gestational and early life experiences affect subsequent behavioural and physical development. The objective of the current study was to investigate associations between gilts' fear of humans, gestational stress level, and feeding and maternal behaviour, as well as how these related to aspects of the personality and growth of their offspring. A total of 37 gilts were used. Four human approach tests were performed between d 104 and d 111 of gestation to classify gilts as fearful or friendly. Gilt feeding behaviour and salivary cortisol concentration was measured between d 90 and d 108 of gestation, and gilt nursing behaviour assessed at d 13 of lactation. Piglets were subject to a back test at d 13 of age, to an open field test and a human approach test at d 20 of age, and growth was monitored to weaning (d 26 of age). Gilts classified as having a fearful behavioural profile had higher cortisol levels than friendly gilts (p < 0.05). Human fear level did not affect reproductive performance or the growth of offspring (p > 0.05). The offspring of friendly gilts tended to have a more active response to the back test (p = 0.09), less freezing response in the open field test (p < 0.05), and received human contact more than piglets from fearful gilts (p < 0.05). The present study shows that gilt human fear level is linked to their stress levels, which can affect the personality of their piglets.

Freedom to Grow: Improving Sow Welfare also Benefits Piglets.

Piglet mortality, especially due to crushing, is a concern in pig production. While current systems use farrowing crates to reduce mortality, they present major animal welfare problems for the sow. This study investigated the effects of free lactation farrowing accommodation on the welfare of piglets born and reared in such accommodation when compared with conventional farrowing crates. Piglets were born to sows in one of two farrowing accommodation treatments and followed from birth to slaughter. Treatments were conventional farrowing crates (control, n = 24 litters) and free lactation pens, which were larger and allowed the sow freedom of movement both pre and post farrowing, (free, n = 22 litters) (675 total piglets). Individual weights were recorded from birth to slaughter. Hoof score was recorded at weaning. Behaviour was recorded during lactation and during the weaner stage. Pre-weaning percentage mortality was equal in treatments (free = 15.95 ± 2.31, control = 14.42 ± 2.15, p = 0.61). Final weight was influenced by treatment (p < 0.05) with pigs from free lactation pens significantly heavier at 114.73 kg compared to 110.82 kg for control pigs. Free pigs took fewer days than control pigs to reach the target weight of 105 kg (147.6 vs. 149.23 days). Throughout lactation, fewer instances of damaging behaviour (ear and tail biting) were observed in free pigs (p = 0.07). Improved growth rates and a decrease in damaging behaviours provide evidence to suggest that pigs from free lactation pens experience improved welfare when compared with control pigs.

Severe tail lesions in finisher pigs are associated with reduction in annual profit in farrow-to-finish pig farms.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the financial impact of different prevalence levels of severe tail lesions (STL) during the finisher stage associated with changes in average daily gain (ADG) in farrow-to-finish pig farms. METHODS: Prevalence of STL was estimated for 31 farrow-to-finish pig farms. Regression tree analysis was used to identify a threshold for STL associated with differences in ADG. Then, a financial analysis was carried using the Teagasc Pig Production model. RESULTS: A threshold of ≥0.86% prevalence of STL was associated with a 4.8% decrease in ADG which translated into pigs requiring 7 days more to reach target slaughter weight than in farms below the threshold. Reduced ADG meant that farms with higher prevalence of STL used 3.6% more weaner and 1.4% more finisher feed per year increasing feed costs by 1.5%. This reduced mean annual farm profit by 15.1% in farms with higher prevalence of STL. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide an indication of the financial effects of STL in intensive pig production systems. The identified threshold for the prevalence of STL could provide a tangible target for farmers to focus on in developing strategies to reduce tail lesions and allow farmers to complete a cost benefit analysis of controlling STL.

Use of infrared thermography to noninvasively assess neonatal piglet temperature.

Hypothermia is risk factor for piglet neonatal mortality, especially for low birth weight piglets. Piglets with intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) also have a higher mortality risk at birth. This study aimed to validate infrared thermography (IRT) as an alternative to rectal temperature (RT) to measure piglet temperature in the hour postpartum, and to identify piglets with thermoregulation difficulties. At birth (6.3 ± 0.35 min postpartum), 67 piglets were dried, weighed, scored for growth retardation (IUGR; 0-3), and isolated in a plastic box where IRT images were taken, followed by RT. Piglets were then returned to the farrowing pen, and the process repeated at 15, 30, and 60 min postpartum. Piglets were ranked according to their weight (quartiles: 0.57-1.27 kg, 1.27-1.5 kg, 1.5-1.74 kg, 1.74-2.44 kg). Temperatures (ear base and tip; minimum, maximum and average of back) were extracted from IRT images (Thermacam Researcher Pro 2.0). Pearson correlations between temperature measures were calculated, and the effect of time, IUGR score, and weight were included in linear mixed models (SAS 9.4). RT was correlated with all IRT data across time points (P < 0.05); correlations were strongest with the ear base, and weakest with the ear tip and minimum back temperature. Both IUGR score and weight rank affected ear base (P < 0.05) and RTs (P < 0.05). The lightest piglets, and piglets with severe IUGR had the lowest temperature, relative to their counterparts. Indeed, differences between all weights categories were significant for RT. Piglets with the lowest weight (0.27-1.27 kg) had lower ear base temperatures than piglets in the third quartile (1.5-1.74 kg; 35.2 ± 0.36 °C vs. 36.5 ± 0.35 °C, t 64.9 = -4.51, P < 0.001) and the heaviest piglets (1.74-2.44 kg; 35.2 ± 0.36 °C vs. 36.4 ± 0.36 °C, t 70.4 = -3.97, P < 0.005). Overall, piglets with severe IUGR (score 3) had a lower RT than normal piglets (score 0; 35.8 ± 0.46 °C vs. 37.2 ± 0.42 °C, t 43.1 = 3.16, P < 0.05) and piglets with mild IUGR (score 1; 35.8 ± 0.46 °C vs. 37.1 ± 0.40 °C, t 45.3 = 2.92, P < 0.05); and they also had lower temperature at the base of the ear than normal piglets (35.1 ± 0.42 °C vs. 36.3 ± 0.36 °C, t 63.1 = 3.01, P < 0.05). These results confirmed that IRT is an interesting noninvasive tool for assessing neonatal piglets' thermoregulatory abilities and could be used in research investigating successful interventions for piglets at risk of hypothermia.

Rearing in female-only groups and dietary mineral supplementation improves sow welfare in the early parities and lifetime performance.

The lifetime performance of commercial sows relies on longevity, which is dependent on good health and reproductive performance. However, there is a high rate of wastage of sows in the early parities, which is influenced by the way they are managed and housed during rearing. This study investigated the carry-over effect of gilt rearing strategy on the measures of welfare and performance. Eighty sows were reared using a two by two factorial design: rearing group composition [GC; female-only (FEM) or mixed-sex (MIX) from weaning] with or without supplementary minerals (CON = control diet; SUPP = control + Cu, Zn, and Mn) from 5 wk into the finisher stage. Once served, gilts were managed in a dynamic group gestation pen and fed a standard gestating sow diet. Locomotory ability was scored (0 to 5) and salivary cortisol measured five times during the first gestation, and human approach tests were carried out on day 108. Hooves were scored for injuries and legs for bursas at day 70 of the first gestation, at first weaning, and at the second farrowing. Sow behavior in the hoof scoring crate (movement, vocalization, and handling ease) was also recorded. The number of piglets born alive and dead during the first five parities was recorded as was the performance of the first litter to finish. Data were analyzed using general or generalized linear mixed models, as appropriate, using SAS (v 9.4). There was no effect (P > 0.05) of rearing treatment on locomotory ability, bursa score, the total number of piglets born, or on offspring growth. However, there was an interaction between GC and supplementary minerals (P < 0.05) on salivary cortisol levels with MIX × SUPP sows having the highest levels. Total hoof scores and heel erosion scores were higher in sows reared in MIX groups (P < 0.01), and CON sows tended to have higher horizontal crack scores (P = 0.06). Sows from MIX kicked more at weaning than FEM (P < 0.05) and tended to be more fearful in the forced human approach test (P = 0.1) where they are scored on their reaction to being approached. They also had more stillborn piglets across all five parities than FEM (P < 0.05). Overall, rearing replacement sows in FEM groups and dietary mineral supplementation had minimal but beneficial effects on their subsequent welfare and performance.

A High Enrichment Replenishment Rate Reduces Damaging Behaviors and Increases Growth Rate in Undocked Pigs Kept in Fully Slatted Pens.

One of the difficulties in complying with the prohibition of routine tail docking is a lack of effective alternative solutions to prevent tail biting, especially in fully slatted systems. This study compared three slat-compatible enrichment replenishment strategies for pigs. Forty-eight mixed-sex pens (six males and six females/pen) of undocked pigs were followed from birth to slaughter. Pre-weaning, half the pigs were provided with enrichment materials (a cardboard cup, rubber toy, hessian cloth and bamboo), in addition to a rope for the sows, in all farrowing crates. Post-weaning, all pens were enriched with eight identical items, including an elevated rack supplied with fresh-cut grass, and objects of wooden, bamboo, rubber, and fabric materials presented in various ways. However, three different replenishment frequencies were applied: "Low" (replenished on Monday/Wednesday/Friday), "Medium" (replenished once daily), and "High" (replenished ad libitum). Individual pigs were weighed on days 0, 49, 91, and 113 post-weaning. Direct behavior observations were conducted twice weekly at pen level (10 min/day/pen), and tail and ear lesion scores of individual pigs were also recorded every other week. These measurements were taken during the post-weaning period. The cost of all enrichment materials used was calculated. Pre-weaning enrichment only contributed to a lower ear lesion score (P = 0.04). No difference in lesion scores was found between post-weaning treatments. "Low" replenishment rate pigs performed more damaging behaviors (tail/ear biting, belly-nosing, mounting, other biting, and aggressive behaviors combined) than "High" and "Medium" pigs (P < 0.01). The average daily gain in the finishing stage was higher in "High" than "Low" pigs (P < 0.05). Although sporadic tail biting occurred, only 0.69% of the pigs had their tails bitten severely enough that they became shorter than half of a normal undocked tail. The average enrichment cost for the post-weaning period was <€2 per pig. In conclusion, the high enrichment replenishment rate increased growth and reduced damaging behaviors compared to the low replenishment rate pigs. Overall, these findings show that the provision and regular replenishment of multiple, slat-compatible, enrichment sources can reduce tail damage to manageable levels without the need for tail docking.

Effect of different cleaning procedures on water use and bacterial levels in weaner pig pens.

Pork is one of the most globally eaten meats and the pig production chain contributes significantly to the water footprint of livestock production. However, very little knowledge is available about the on-farm factors that influence freshwater use in the pig production chain. An experiment was conducted to quantify the effect of three different washing treatments on freshwater use, bacterial levels [(total bacterial counts; TBC), Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcus] and cleaning time in washing of pens for weaning pigs. Three weaner rooms were selected with each room having 10 pens and a capacity to hold up to 14 pigs each. Pigs were weaned and kept in the pens for 7 weeks. Finally, the pens were cleaned before the next batch of pigs moved in. The washing treatments used were power washing and disinfection (WASH); presoaking followed by power washing and disinfection (SOAK), and presoaking followed by detergent, power washing and disinfection (SOAK + DETER). A water meter was used to collect water use data and swab samples were taken to determine the bacterial levels. The results showed that there was no overall effect of washing treatments on water use. However, there was an effect of treatment on the washing time (p<0.01) with SOAK and SOAK+DETER reducing the washing time per pen by 2.3 minutes (14%) and 4.2 minutes (27%) compared to WASH. Nonetheless, there was an effect of sampling time (before or after washing) (p<0.001) on the levels of TBC and Staphylococcus, but no effect was seen on Enterobacteriaceae levels. Thus, the washing treatments used in this study had no effect on the water use of the pork production chain. Although there was no difference in both water use and bacterial load, from a producer perspective, presoaking and detergent use can save time and labour costs, so this would be the preferred option.

Variations in the Behavior of Pigs During an Open Field and Novel Object Test.

Tail biting is a serious welfare concern in pig production. It not only causes distress for victims, but may occur where pigs are unable to cope, and become biters. An animal's ability to cope with stressful situations may vary between individuals, but the behavioral response could be consistent across different fear eliciting situations. We exposed 75 pigs to open field (OF) and novel object (NO) tests at 14 weeks of age. Within each pen of pigs (n = 16 pens, 55 pigs/pen), 6 pigs were selected for testing using the following criteria: 3 pigs that had severe bite wounds (BITTEN), 1 confirmed biter (BITER), 1 pig which could be easily approached and trained to provide a saliva sample (BOLD) and 1 pig which was extremely evasive, and was unable to be trained to willingly provide a saliva sample (SHY). Given that responses may be consistent in different scenarios, we hypothesized that SHY pigs would display more characteristics of a fear response (i.e., less movement in the open field, more time spent by the door, and longer latency to approach the novel object) than human BOLD pigs. We also hypothesized that BITTEN pigs would behave similarly to SHY and BITERS similarly to BOLD. The BOLD and BITER pigs spent more time exploring (P < 0.05) and less time by the door (P < 0.01) than the BITTEN and SHY pigs. Although there was an overall increase in cortisol level from before to after the tests (P < 0.001), this was only significant for BITTEN (P < 0.001) and SHY (P < 0.05) pigs. Therefore, as hypothesized, for several measures, BOLD, and BITER pigs behaved similarly, and differently to SHY and BITTEN. However, the low sample size potentially meant that for several measures, although numeric differences were in the direction hypothesized, there were no statistical differences. Further work in which a greater number of BITER pigs were included in the sample, may elucidate our hypotheses more clearly, as to whether responses to fear tests in pigs could be associated with the likelihood of being a tail biter, or victim.

Can increased dietary fibre level and a single enrichment device reduce the risk of tail biting in undocked growing-finishing pigs in fully slatted systems?

This study evaluated the effectiveness of combined dietary and enrichment strategies to manage tail biting in pigs with intact tails in a conventional fully-slatted floor housing system. A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design was used. Pigs had either a high fibre (weaner 5.3% and finisher 11.6% of crude fibre) or standard fibre diet (weaner 3.7% and finisher 5.9% of crude fibre). In the weaner stage, pigs had either a spruce wooden post (supplied in a wall-mounted dispenser) or a rubber floor toy as a enrichment device, and in the finisher stage, they had either the same or alternate enrichment item. Six hundred and seventy-two pigs were assigned to 48 pens of 14 pigs and followed from weaning until slaughter. Individual tail lesion scores and pen level behaviours were directly recorded every 2 weeks. Twenty-six pens had tail biting outbreaks and 161 injured pigs needed removal for treatment. Pigs fed with the high fibre diet performed more tail biting (p < 0.05) and tended to have a worse tail damage scores than those fed the standard fibre diet (p = 0.08). Pigs which had the floor toy as weaners and wood as finishers tended to have fewer tail lesions in the finisher stage than their counterparts (p = 0.06). Pigs receiving the floor toy as enrichment interacted with the enrichment more frequently overall (p < 0.001) and performed fewer harmful behaviours in the weaner stage (p < 0.05). Overall, higher fibre in the diet in a relatively barren environment did not help reduce tail biting or tail lesions. Altering the fibre level in the pigs' diet and providing a single enrichment device to undocked pigs on fully slatted floors resulted in a high level of tail biting and a large proportion of pigs with partial tail amputation.