Development of an improved blood-stage malaria vaccine targeting the essential RH5-CyRPA-RIPR invasion complex.

Reticulocyte-binding protein homologue 5 (RH5), a leading blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum malaria vaccine target, interacts with cysteine-rich protective antigen (CyRPA) and RH5-interacting protein (RIPR) to form an essential heterotrimeric "RCR-complex". We investigate whether RCR-complex vaccination can improve upon RH5 alone. Using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) we show that parasite growth-inhibitory epitopes on each antigen are surface-exposed on the RCR-complex and that mAb pairs targeting different antigens can function additively or synergistically. However, immunisation of female rats with the RCR-complex fails to outperform RH5 alone due to immuno-dominance of RIPR coupled with inferior potency of anti-RIPR polyclonal IgG. We identify that all growth-inhibitory antibody epitopes of RIPR cluster within the C-terminal EGF-like domains and that a fusion of these domains to CyRPA, called "R78C", combined with RH5, improves the level of in vitro parasite growth inhibition compared to RH5 alone. These preclinical data justify the advancement of the RH5.1 + R78C/Matrix-M™ vaccine candidate to Phase 1 clinical trial.

"I Found Comfort in Exercising": Exploring Experiences With Exercise for Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Little is known about how adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience exercise, resulting in a lack of recommendations for supporting this population. We aimed to explore how adults with ADHD experience exercise as a management tool before and after diagnosis and how and why individuals experience issues related to exercise dependence. Fifteen active adults with a diagnosis of ADHD participated in semistructured interviews. Three overarching themes were identified: (a) exercise as a necessity for ADHD, reflecting the need to exercise before a formal ADHD diagnosis, and use of exercise as a management tool postdiagnosis; (b) goals and achievements to live by, reflecting how exercise patterns revolved around a need to make progress toward targets; and (c) activity or exercise: a roller coaster journey, covering the ups and downs of exercise journeys. This article highlights the importance of exercise for adults to manage ADHD and how this can be encouraged and supported.

Prevalence of disordered eating and its relationship with rapid weight loss amongst male and female combat sport competitors: A prospective study.

OBJECTIVES: To compare prevalence and change scores of disordered eating (DE) in combat sport athletes by sex and explore the potential relationship between rapid weight loss (RWL) and DE scores. DESIGN: Prospective study based on 24 events (September 2022-2023). METHODS: A body mass (BM) questionnaire was completed at ~1 day post-competition providing pre-competition BM data for -7 days, -24 h, and weigh-in. The Athletic Disordered Eating (ADE) online questionnaire was completed at ~7 and ~28 days post-competition, providing overall DE and four subscale scores (food and energy control, bingeing, body control, and body discontent). RESULTS: There were 122, 132, and 89 respondents for the BM (77 % male), and ADE questionnaires at 7 (79 % male), and 28 days (74 % male). A large proportion of males' (83 %) and females' (89 %) DE scores were moderate to very high; minimal (17 % vs. 11 %), moderate (36 % vs. 32 %), high (37 % vs. 36 %), and very high (11 % vs. 21 %). Comparing DE change scores in males and females indicated deterioration (5 % vs. 0 %), improvement (3 % vs. 25 %, p = 0.013), and no difference (92 % vs. 75 %). Body discontent change score showed a significant sex difference (p = 0.014), with females improving (42 % vs. 17 %, p = 0.035) and males deteriorating (35 % vs. 4 %, p = 0.008). Correlation analyses were significant for RWL -7 days and males' food control score (R = 0.22, p = 0.031). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate to very high DE indications were identified in 4 of every 5 combat sport competitors. A sex-specific change in body discontent is evident, and most competitors struggle with their food-body relationship post-competition, irrespective of RWL magnitude.

Metabolic, cardiovascular, neuromuscular and perceptual responses to repeated military-specific load carriage treadmill simulations.

Bouts of military load carriage are rarely completed in isolation; however, limited research has investigated the physiological responses to repeated load carriage tasks. Twelve civilian men (age, 28 ± 8 years; stature, 185.6 ± 5.8 cm; body mass 84.3 ± 11.1 kg and maximal oxygen uptake, 51.5 ± 6.4 mL·kg-1 min-1) attended the laboratory on two occasions to undertake a familiarisation and an experimental session. Following their familiarisation session, participants completed three bouts of a fast load carriage protocol (FLCP; ∼65 min), carrying 25 kg, interspersed with a 65-min recovery period. Physiological strain (oxygen uptake [V̇O2] and heart rate [HR]) was assessed during the FLCP bouts, and physical performance assessments (weighted counter-movement jump [wCMJ], maximal isometric voluntary contraction of the quadriceps [MIVC] and seated medicine ball throw [SMBT]) was measured pre and post each FLCP bout. A main effect for bout and measurement time was evident for V̇O2 and HR (both p < 0.001 and Ñ 2 = 0.103-0.816). There was no likely change in SMBT distance (p = 0.201 and Ñ 2 = 0.004), but MIVC peak force reduced by approximately 25% across measurement points (p < 0.001 and Ñ 2 = 0.133). A mean percentage change of approximately -12% from initial values was also evident for peak wCMJ height (p = 0.001 and Ñ 2 = 0.028). Collectively, these data demonstrate that repeated FLCP bouts result in an elevated physiological strain for each successive bout, along with a substantial reduction in lower body power (wCMJ and MIVC). Therefore, future research should investigate possible mitigation strategies to maintain role-related capability.

Do joint-preserving hip procedures compromise subsequent total hip arthroplasty? A meta-analysis of complications, functional outcome and survivorship.

BACKGROUND: Joint-preserving hip operations can help relieve pain and delay the need for long-term joint arthroplasty. Previous research has not identified procedures that can compromise outcomes following total hip arthroplasty (THA). This meta-analysis aims to evaluate the effect of joint-preserving hip operations on outcomes following subsequent THA. METHODS: MEDLINE, EMBASE and Scopus databases were searched from the date of inception until February 2024. All studies comparing outcomes following THA in individuals with (PS) and without prior surgery (NPS) of the femur or pelvis were included. Data on operative time, blood loss, intra- and post-operative complications, functional outcomes, and implant survivorship were extracted. RESULTS: 16 studies, comprising 2576 patients were included (PS = 939, NPS = 1637). The PS group was associated with significantly longer operative time [MD: 8.1, 95% CI: 4.6-11.6], significantly greater blood loss [MD: 167.8, 95% CI: 135.6-200.0], and a higher risk of intra-operative peri-prosthetic fracture [RR: 1.9, 95% CI: 1.2-3.0], specifically, with prior femoral osteotomy. There were no differences in terms of risks of dislocation [RR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.0-3.2], implant loosening [RR: 1.0, 95% CI: 0.7-1.5], or revision surgery [RR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.0-1.7] between the two groups. The PS group was associated with significantly poorer improvements in functional outcome [MD: -5.6, 95% CI: -7.6-(-3.5)], specifically, with prior acetabular osteotomy. Implant survivorship in the two groups was comparable after one year [HR: 1.9, 95% CI: 0.6-6.2] but significantly inferior in the PS group after five years [HR: 2.5, 95% CI: 1.4-4.7], specifically, with prior femoral osteotomy. CONCLUSION: Joint-preserving hip operations are associated with greater intra-operative challenges and complications. In subsequent joint arthroplasty, prior acetabular procedures affect functional outcomes while prior femoral procedures influence implant survivorship. Hip pain due to the morphological sequelae of pediatric hip pathology can be debilitating at a young age. Surgical decision-making at that time needs to consider the survivorship of a THA implanted at that young age against the consequences of hip preservation surgery on further THA.

Heat-related changes in the velocity and kinetic energy of flowing blood influence the human heart's output during hyperthermia.

Passive whole-body hyperthermia increases limb blood flow and cardiac output ( Q ̇ $\dot Q$ ), but the interplay between peripheral and central thermo-haemodynamic mechanisms remains unclear. Here we tested the hypothesis that local hyperthermia-induced alterations in peripheral blood flow and blood kinetic energy modulate flow to the heart and Q ̇ $\dot Q$ . Body temperatures, regional (leg, arm, head) and systemic haemodynamics, and left ventricular (LV) volumes and functions were assessed in eight healthy males during: (1) 3 h control (normothermic condition); (2) 3 h of single-leg heating; (3) 3 h of two-leg heating; and (4) 2.5 h of whole-body heating. Leg, forearm, and extracranial blood flow increased in close association with local rises in temperature while brain perfusion remained unchanged. Increases in blood velocity with small to no changes in the conduit artery diameter underpinned the augmented limb and extracranial perfusion. In all heating conditions, Q ̇ $\dot Q$ increased in association with proportional elevations in systemic vascular conductance, related to enhanced blood flow, blood velocity, vascular conductance and kinetic energy in the limbs and head (all R2 ≥ 0.803; P < 0.001), but not in the brain. LV systolic (end-systolic elastance and twist) and diastolic functional profiles (untwisting rate), pulmonary ventilation and systemic aerobic metabolism were only altered in whole-body heating. These findings substantiate the idea that local hyperthermia-induced selective alterations in peripheral blood flow modulate the magnitude of flow to the heart and Q ̇ $\dot Q$ through changes in blood velocity and kinetic energy. Localised heat-activated events in the peripheral circulation therefore affect the human heart's output. KEY POINTS: Local and whole-body hyperthermia increases limb and systemic perfusion, but the underlying peripheral and central heat-sensitive mechanisms are not fully established. Here we investigated the regional (leg, arm and head) and systemic haemodynamics (cardiac output: Q ̇ $\dot Q$ ) during passive single-leg, two-leg and whole-body hyperthermia to determine the contribution of peripheral and central thermosensitive factors in the control of human circulation. Single-leg, two-leg, and whole-body hyperthermia induced graded increases in leg blood flow and Q ̇ $\dot Q$ . Brain blood flow, however, remained unchanged in all conditions. Ventilation, extracranial blood flow and cardiac systolic and diastolic functions only increased during whole-body hyperthermia. The augmented Q ̇ $\dot Q$ with hyperthermia was tightly related to increased limb and head blood velocity, flow and kinetic energy. The findings indicate that local thermosensitive mechanisms modulate regional blood velocity, flow and kinetic energy, thereby controlling the magnitude of flow to the heart and thus the coupling of peripheral and central circulation during hyperthermia.

The developmental activities of women's professional pathway cricketers.

The growth of investment in women's cricket has led to the development of new professional pathways. However, there is lack of specific evidence to support the development of these athletes. This study aimed to take a first step in understanding the participation histories of female cricketers selected into English women's professional academies. 84 players completed the Participation History Questionnaire (PHQ) to capture details of activities engaged in across development, including milestones, cricket activity, and engagement in other sport activities. There were relative age effects where players' birthdate distributions differed from national norms (X2 = 8.451, p = .003, V = 0.227), and more players than expected attended independent schools (X2 = 7.980, p = .005, V = 0.232). Participants engaged in cricket informally before coach led training, have siblings (particularly brothers) interested in cricket and often played boy's cricket before engaging in the girl's or women's game. Developmental activities were characterised by early engagement, high levels of diversification, and very low levels of play compared to high levels of formal practice and match play. These findings have implications for the advancement of talent identification and development policies and processes in women's cricket.

Chromatic visual evoked potentials: A review of physiology, methods and clinical applications.

Objective assessment of the visual system can be performed electrophysiologically using the visual evoked potential (VEP). In many clinical circumstances, this is performed using high contrast achromatic patterns or diffuse flash stimuli. These methods are clinically valuable but they may only assess a subset of possible physiological circuitries within the visual system, particularly those involved in achromatic (luminance) processing. The use of chromatic VEPs (cVEPs) in addition to standard VEPs can inform us of the function or dysfunction of chromatic pathways. The chromatic VEP has been well studied in human health and disease. Yet, to date our knowledge of their underlying mechanisms and applications remains limited. This likely reflects a heterogeneity in the methodology, analysis and conclusions of different works, which leads to ambiguity in their clinical use. This review sought to identify the primary methodologies employed for recording cVEPs. Furthermore cVEP maturation and application in understanding the function of the chromatic system under healthy and diseased conditions are reviewed. We first briefly describe the physiology of normal colour vision, before describing the methodologies and historical developments which have led to our understanding of cVEPs. We thereafter describe the expected maturation of the cVEP, followed by reviewing their application in several disorders: congenital colour vision deficiencies, retinal disease, glaucoma, optic nerve and neurological disorders, diabetes, amblyopia and dyslexia. We finalise the review with recommendations for testing and future directions.

Different Methods of Winning, Losing, and Training in Combat Sports and Their Relationship with Overall Competitive Winningness.

This study aimed to investigate how overall competitive winningness in combat sports depended on patterns of victory and loss, as well as training habits. Competitors (N = 280) from several combat sports participated in the study. The online survey included questions on self-reported patterns of victory (and loss), training habits, general demographics (e.g., age), and sport-specific information (e.g., stage of career and competitive style). Overall, it was found across four models that reflected diversity of winningness in combat sports that the most important predictors of competitive winningness were loss by points (negative), loss by submission (negative), loss (negative) or victory (positive) by throw or technical fall, and loss (negative) or victory (positive) by knockout. The findings applied to amateur and regional/state athletes, and rarely to karate or tae kwon do. Findings around demographics or training habits were largely unremarkable, outside of a relationship between higher training loads and less career winning in wrestlers. Results show that while winning via a finishing sequence (e.g., knockout or submission) is preferable to the judge's decision or points, the matter of victory is less important than the methods by which an athlete loses. In grappling-only sports, we observed a trend that more losses via finishing sequence were worse for careers than losing by points. In fact, having most of one's losses coming via judge's decision or points was beneficial in wrestling and judo, perhaps due to athletes taking less risks and having better defence. These findings may aid practitioners developing effective tactics and training programs.

The effect of task load, information reliability and interdependency on anticipation performance.

In sport, coaches often explicitly provide athletes with stable contextual information related to opponent action preferences to enhance anticipation performance. This information can be dependent on, or independent of, dynamic contextual information that only emerges during the sequence of play (e.g. opponent positioning). The interdependency between contextual information sources, and the associated cognitive demands of integrating information sources during anticipation, has not yet been systematically examined. We used a temporal occlusion paradigm to alter the reliability of contextual and kinematic information during the early, mid- and final phases of a two-versus-two soccer anticipation task. A dual-task paradigm was incorporated to investigate the impact of task load on skilled soccer players' ability to integrate information and update their judgements in each phase. Across conditions, participants received no contextual information (control) or stable contextual information (opponent preferences) that was dependent on, or independent of, dynamic contextual information (opponent positioning). As predicted, participants used reliable contextual and kinematic information to enhance anticipation. Further exploratory analysis suggested that increased task load detrimentally affected anticipation accuracy but only when both reliable contextual and kinematic information were available for integration in the final phase. This effect was observed irrespective of whether the stable contextual information was dependent on, or independent of, dynamic contextual information. Findings suggest that updating anticipatory judgements in the final phase of a sequence of play based on the integration of reliable contextual and kinematic information requires cognitive resources.

A Prebiotic Precursor to Life's Phosphate Transfer System with an ATP Analog and Histidyl Peptide Organocatalysts.

Biochemistry is dependent upon enzyme catalysts accelerating key reactions. At the origin of life, prebiotic chemistry must have incorporated catalytic reactions. While this would have yielded much needed amplification of certain reaction products, it would come at the possible cost of rapidly depleting the high energy molecules that acted as chemical fuels. Biochemistry solves this problem by combining kinetically stable and thermodynamically activated molecules (e.g., ATP) with enzyme catalysts. Here, we demonstrate a prebiotic phosphate transfer system involving an ATP analog (imidazole phosphate) and histidyl peptides, which function as organocatalytic enzyme analogs. We demonstrate that histidyl peptides catalyze phosphorylations via a phosphorylated histidyl intermediate. We integrate these histidyl-catalyzed phosphorylations into a complete prebiotic scenario whereby inorganic phosphate is incorporated into organic compounds though physicochemical wet-dry cycles. Our work demonstrates a plausible system for the catalyzed production of phosphorylated compounds on the early Earth and how organocatalytic peptides, as enzyme precursors, could have played an important role in this.

Cross-adaptation from heat stress to hypoxia: A systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis.

Cross-adaptation (CA) refers to the successful induction of physiological adaptation under one environmental stressor (e.g., heat), to enable subsequent benefit in another (e.g., hypoxia). This systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis investigated the effect of heat acclimation (HA) on physiological, perceptual and physical performance outcome measures during rest, and submaximal and maximal intensity exercise in hypoxia. Database searches in Scopus and MEDLINE were performed. Studies were included when they met the Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome criteria, were of English-language, peer-reviewed, full-text original articles, using human participants. Risk of bias and study quality were assessed using the COnsensus based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement INstruments checklist. Nine studies were included, totalling 79 participants (100 % recreationally trained males). The most common method of HA included fixed-intensity exercise comprising 9 ± 3 sessions, 89 ± 24-min in duration and occurred within 39 ± 2 °C and 32 ± 13 % relative humidity. CA induced a moderate, beneficial effect on physiological measures at rest (oxygen saturation: g = 0.60) and during submaximal exercise (heart rate: g = -0.65, core temperature: g = -0.68 and skin temperature: g = -0.72). A small effect was found for ventilation (g = 0.24) and performance measures (peak power: g = 0.32 and time trial time: g = -0.43) during maximal intensity exercise. No effect was observed for perceptual outcome measures. CA may be appropriate for individuals, such as occupational or military workers, whose access to altitude exposure prior to undertaking submaximal activity in hypoxic conditions is restricted. Methodological variances exist within the current literature, and females and well-trained individuals have yet to be investigated. Future research should focus on these cohorts and explore the mechanistic underpinnings of CA.

Using global remote camera data of a solitary species complex to evaluate the drivers of group formation.

The social system of animals involves a complex interplay between physiology, natural history, and the environment. Long relied upon discrete categorizations of "social" and "solitary" inhibit our capacity to understand species and their interactions with the world around them. Here, we use a globally distributed camera trapping dataset to test the drivers of aggregating into groups in a species complex (martens and relatives, family Mustelidae, Order Carnivora) assumed to be obligately solitary. We use a simple quantification, the probability of being detected in a group, that was applied across our globally derived camera trap dataset. Using a series of binomial generalized mixed-effects models applied to a dataset of 16,483 independent detections across 17 countries on four continents we test explicit hypotheses about potential drivers of group formation. We observe a wide range of probabilities of being detected in groups within the solitary model system, with the probability of aggregating in groups varying by more than an order of magnitude. We demonstrate that a species' context-dependent proclivity toward aggregating in groups is underpinned by a range of resource-related factors, primarily the distribution of resources, with increasing patchiness of resources facilitating group formation, as well as interactions between environmental conditions (resource constancy/winter severity) and physiology (energy storage capabilities). The wide variation in propensities to aggregate with conspecifics observed here highlights how continued failure to recognize complexities in the social behaviors of apparently solitary species limits our understanding not only of the individual species but also the causes and consequences of group formation.

Formation of Peroxynitrite, [O-N-O-O]-, via a Cascade of Reactions between Ozonide and Ammonia.

We report on an unexpected reaction between ammonia and potassium ozonide dissolved in liq. NH3 resulting in the formation of peroxynitrite, [ONOO]-, which exclusively happens in the presence of a specific partially fluorinated aniline-based ammonium cation. High-resolution structural data of the peroxynitrite anion in cis-conformation have been obtained. We further studied this molecule anion by single crystal Raman spectroscopy. The cis and trans isomers of peroxynitrite were analysed computationally with respect to their relative energies, the cis-trans transition barrier and their decomposition pathways to the nitrate anion. By experimentally examining cations decorated with fluorine ligands to different degrees, we demonstrate that fluorine specific interactions play a crucial role in the unexpected formation of peroxynitrite and as a conspicuously structure directing factor for the underlying crystalline solid phases, exhibiting distinct micro-separations of fluorine and hydrogen enriched regions.

Difficult at dusk? Illuminating the debate on cricket ball visibility.

OBJECTIVES: Investigate the visibility of new and old red, white and pink cricket balls under lighting and background conditions experienced during a day-night cricket match. DESIGN: We modelled the luminance contrast signals available for a typical observer for a ball against backgrounds in a professional cricket ground, at different times of day. METHODS: Spectral reflectance (light reflected as a function of wavelength) was derived from laboratory measurements of new and old red, white and pink balls. We also gathered spectral measurements from backgrounds (pitch, grass, sightscreens, crowd, sky) and spectral illuminance during a day-night match (natural afternoon light, through dusk to night under floodlights) from Lord's Cricket Ground (London, UK). The luminance contrast of the ball relative to the background was calculated for each combination of ball, time of day, and background surface. RESULTS: Old red and old pink balls may offer little or no contrast against the grass, pitch and crowd. New pink balls can also be of low contrast against the crowd at dusk, as can pink and white balls (of any age) against the sky at dusk. CONCLUSIONS: Reports of difficulties with visibility of the pink ball are supported by our data. However, our modelling also shows that difficulties with visibility may also be expected under certain circumstances for red and white balls. The variable conditions in a cricket ground and the changing colour of an ageing ball make maintaining good visibility of the ball a challenge when playing day-night matches.

Words or code first? Is the legacy document or a code statement the better starting point for complexity-reducing legal automation?

Law is a critical tool that humans have created to assist them in managing complex social interactions. Computational Law holds the potential to significantly enhance our capacity to express and manage legal complexity, and a number of advantages can result from restating public and private legal rules in computable form. Capturing that potential depends in part on the approaches taken to automation. One set of choices involves whether to translate directly into code from existing natural language statements of laws, regulations and contracts or whether to step back, envision the basic structure underlying those statements and build a software approach that reflects that structure in a code-native manner. We argue that many advantages can flow from the second approach, and we present a specific use case of a simplified insurance policy as an example of this approach. Large language models may assist in this process, but are not yet a replacement for a code-native utility. This article is part of the theme issue 'A complexity science approach to law and governance'.

Exercise Dependency and Overuse Injuries in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

ABSTRACT: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common condition, but current medications have limitations, pushing a drive for alternative approaches. Different exercise-focused approaches have shown promise, but concern has also been raised about individuals with ADHD showing greater risk of addiction, including exercise dependency. Using an online survey, we examined current exercise practices, including exercise dependency and the presence of overuse injury, which could result from overexercising, in 114 adults with ADHD. We found that most were regularly exercising. None were classified as exercise dependent, but 38.9% were deemed symptomatic nondependent. Hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were a predictor of the level of exercise withdrawal experienced, and the co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder was associated with greater risk of overuse injuries. The data indicate that ADHD may confer some greater risk of exercise dependency, aligning with previous studies investigating other addictions and suggesting further research is critical.

The effects of internal representations on performance and fluidity in a motor task.

Individuals can differ in the mode in which they experience conscious thought. These differences in visualisation and verbalisation can also be evident during motor control. The Internal Representation Questionnaire (IRQ) was developed to measure propensity to engage certain types of representations, but its ability to predict motor control and links to reinvestment and motor imagery have not been tested. 159 included participants completed the IRQ, movement specific reinvestment scale (MSRS), and a novel online motor task before and after a period of practice. Results showed that the IRQ Verbal and Orthographic factors were significant predictors of scores on the MSRS. The IRQ factor of Manipulational Representations predicted motor performance both before and after practice. The fluidity of executed movements were predicted by the IRQ verbalisation factor where higher propensity to verbalise was associated with higher levels of jitter, but only after a period of practice. Results suggest there may be some informative conceptual overlap between internal verbalisations and reinvestment and that the propensity to manipulate internal representations may be predictive of motor performance in new tasks. The IRQ has potential to be a valuable tool for predicting motor performance.

Examining the importance of local and global patterns for familiarity detection in soccer action sequences.

Pattern recognition is a defining characteristic of expertise across multiple domains. Given the dynamic interactions at local and global levels, team sports can provide a vehicle for investigating skilled pattern recognition. The aims of this study were to investigate whether global patterns could be recognised on the basis of localised relational information and if relations between certain display features were more important than others for successful pattern recognition. Elite (n = 20), skilled (n = 34) and less-skilled (n = 37) soccer players completed three recognition paradigms of stimuli presented in point-light format across three counterbalanced conditions: 'whole-part'; 'part-whole'; and 'whole-whole'. 'Whole' clips represented a 11 vs. 11 soccer match and 'part' clips presented the same passages of play with only two central attacking players or two peripheral players shown. Elite players recognised significantly more accurately than the skilled and less-skilled groups. Participants were significantly more accurate in the 'whole-whole' condition compared to others, and recognised stimuli featuring the two central attacking players significantly more accurately than those featuring peripheral players. Findings provide evidence that elite players can encode localised relations and then extrapolate this information to recognise more global macro patterns.