ß-Cell Insulin Resistance Plays a Causal Role in Fat-Induced ß-Cell Dysfunction In Vitro and In Vivo.

In the classical insulin target tissues of liver, muscle, and adipose tissue, chronically elevated levels of free fatty acids (FFA) impair insulin signaling. Insulin signaling molecules are also present in ß-cells where they play a role in ß-cell function. Therefore, inhibition of the insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 pathway may be involved in fat-induced ß-cell dysfunction. To address the role of ß-cell insulin resistance in FFA-induced ß-cell dysfunction we co-infused bisperoxovanadate (BPV) with oleate or olive oil for 48 hours in rats. BPV, a tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, acts as an insulin mimetic and is devoid of any antioxidant effect that could prevent ß-cell dysfunction, unlike most insulin sensitizers. Following fat infusion, rats either underwent hyperglycemic clamps for assessment of ß-cell function in vivo or islets were isolated for ex vivo assessment of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). We also incubated islets with oleate or palmitate and BPV for in vitro assessment of GSIS and Akt (protein kinase B) phosphorylation. Next, mice with ß-cell specific deletion of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog; negative regulator of insulin signaling) and littermate controls were infused with oleate for 48 hours, followed by hyperglycemic clamps or ex vivo evaluation of GSIS. In rat experiments, BPV protected against fat-induced impairment of ß-cell function in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro. In mice, ß-cell specific deletion of PTEN protected against oleate-induced ß-cell dysfunction in vivo and ex vivo. These data support the hypothesis that ß-cell insulin resistance plays a causal role in FFA-induced ß-cell dysfunction.

Hepatitis C virus infection is associated with hepatic and adipose tissue insulin resistance that improves after viral cure.

BACKGROUND: Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is associated with systemic insulin resistance, yet there are limited data on the tissue-specific contribution in vivo to this adverse metabolic phenotype, and the effect of HCV cure. METHODS: We examined tissue-specific insulin sensitivity in a cohort study involving 13 patients with CHC compared to 12 BMI-matched healthy control subjects. All subjects underwent a two-step clamp incorporating the use of stable isotopes to measure carbohydrate and lipid flux (hepatic and global insulin sensitivity) with concomitant subcutaneous adipose tissue microdialysis and biopsy (subcutaneous adipose tissue insulin sensitivity). Investigations were repeated in seven patients with CHC following antiviral therapy with a documented sustained virological response. RESULTS: Adipose tissue was more insulin resistant in patients with CHC compared to healthy controls, as evidence by elevated glycerol production rate and impaired insulin-mediated suppression of both circulating nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) and adipose interstitial fluid glycerol release during the hyperinsulinaemic euglycaemic clamp. Hepatic and muscle insulin sensitivity were similar between patients with CHC and controls. Following viral eradication, hepatic insulin sensitivity improved as demonstrated by a reduction in endogenous glucose production rate. In addition, circulating NEFA decreased with sustained virological response (SVR) and insulin was more effective at suppressing adipose tissue interstitial glycerol release with a parallel increase in the expression of insulin signalling cascade genes in adipose tissue consistent with enhanced adipose tissue insulin sensitivity. CONCLUSION: Chronic hepatitis C patients have profound subcutaneous adipose tissue insulin resistance in comparison with BMI-matched controls. For the first time, we have demonstrated that viral eradication improves global, hepatic and adipose tissue insulin sensitivity.

IKKß inhibition prevents fat-induced beta cell dysfunction in vitro and in vivo in rodents.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We have previously shown that oxidative stress plays a causal role in beta cell dysfunction induced by fat. Here, we address whether the proinflammatory kinase inhibitor of (nuclear factor) κB kinase ß (IKKß), which is activated by oxidative stress, is also implicated. METHODS: Fat (oleate or olive oil) was infused intravenously in Wistar rats for 48 h with or without the IKKß inhibitor salicylate. Thereafter, beta cell function was evaluated in vivo using hyperglycaemic clamps or ex vivo in islets isolated from fat-treated rats. We also exposed rat islets to oleate in culture, with or without salicylate and 4(2'-aminoethyl)amino-1,8-dimethylimidazo(1,2-a)quinoxaline; BMS-345541 (BMS, another inhibitor of IKKß) and evaluated beta cell function in vitro. Furthermore, oleate was infused in mice treated with BMS and in beta cell-specific Ikkb-null mice. RESULTS: 48 h infusion of fat impaired beta-cell function in vivo, assessed using the disposition index (DI), in rats (saline: 1.41 ± 0.13; oleate: 0.95 ± 0.11; olive oil [OLO]: 0.87 ± 0.15; p < 0.01 for both fats vs saline) and in mice (saline: 2.51 ± 0.39; oleate: 1.20 ± 0.19; p < 0.01 vs saline) and ex vivo (i.e., insulin secretion, units are pmol insulin islet-1 h-1) in rat islets (saline: 1.51 ± 0.13; oleate: 1.03 ± 0.10; OLO: 0.91 ± 0.13; p < 0.001 for both fats vs saline) and the dysfunction was prevented by co-infusion of salicylate in rats (oleate + salicylate: 1.30 ± 0.09; OLO + salicylate: 1.33 ± 0.23) or BMS in mice (oleate + BMS: 2.25 ± 0.42) in vivo and by salicylate in rat islets ex vivo (oleate + salicylate: 1.74 ± 0.31; OLO + salicylate: 1.54 ± 0.29). In cultured islets, 48 h exposure to oleate impaired beta-cell function ([in pmol insulin islet-1 h-1] control: 0.66 ± 0.12; oleate: 0.23 ± 0.03; p < 0.01 vs saline), an effect prevented by both inhibitors (oleate + salicylate: 0.98 ± 0.08; oleate + BMS: 0.50 ± 0.02). Genetic inhibition of IKKß also prevented fat-induced beta-cell dysfunction ex vivo ([in pmol insulin islet-1 h-1] control saline: 0.16 ± 0.02; control oleate: 0.10 ± 0.02; knockout oleate: 0.17 ± 0.04; p < 0.05 control saline vs. control oleate) and in vivo (DI: control saline: 3.86 ± 0.40; control oleate: 1.95 ± 0.29; knockout oleate: 2.96 ± 0.24; p < 0.01 control saline vs control oleate). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our results demonstrate a causal role for IKKß in fat-induced beta cell dysfunction in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo.

Dual-5α-Reductase Inhibition Promotes Hepatic Lipid Accumulation in Man.

CONTEXT: 5α-Reductase 1 and 2 (SRD5A1, SRD5A2) inactivate cortisol to 5α-dihydrocortisol in addition to their role in the generation of DHT. Dutasteride (dual SRD5A1 and SRD5A2 inhibitor) and finasteride (selective SRD5A2 inhibitor) are commonly prescribed, but their potential metabolic effects have only recently been identified. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to provide a detailed assessment of the metabolic effects of SRD5A inhibition and in particular the impact on hepatic lipid metabolism. DESIGN: We conducted a randomized study in 12 healthy male volunteers with detailed metabolic phenotyping performed before and after a 3-week treatment with finasteride (5 mg od) or dutasteride (0.5 mg od). Hepatic magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and two-step hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamps incorporating stable isotopes with concomitant adipose tissue microdialysis were used to evaluate carbohydrate and lipid flux. Analysis of the serum metabolome was performed using ultra-HPLC-mass spectrometry. SETTING: The study was performed in the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Facility, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, United Kingdom. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Incorporation of hepatic lipid was measured with MRS. RESULTS: Dutasteride, not finasteride, increased hepatic insulin resistance. Intrahepatic lipid increased on MRS after dutasteride treatment and was associated with increased rates of de novo lipogenesis. Adipose tissue lipid mobilization was decreased by dutasteride. Analysis of the serum metabolome demonstrated that in the fasted state, dutasteride had a significant effect on lipid metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: Dual-SRD5A inhibition with dutasteride is associated with increased intrahepatic lipid accumulation.

Resveratrol prevents insulin resistance caused by short-term elevation of free fatty acids in vivo.

Elevated levels of plasma free fatty acids (FFA), which are commonly found in obesity, induce insulin resistance. FFA activate protein kinases including the proinflammatory IκBα kinase ß (IKKß), leading to serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) and impaired insulin signaling. To test whether resveratrol, a polyphenol found in red wine, prevents FFA-induced insulin resistance, we used a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with a tracer to assess hepatic and peripheral insulin sensitivity in overnight-fasted Wistar rats infused for 7 h with saline, Intralipid plus 20 U·mL(-1) heparin (IH; triglyceride emulsion that elevates FFA levels in vivo; 5.5 µL·min(-1)) with or without resveratrol (3 mg·kg(-1)·h(-1)), or resveratrol alone. Infusion of IH significantly decreased glucose infusion rate (GIR; P < 0.05) and peripheral glucose utilization (P < 0.05) and increased endogenous glucose production (EGP; P < 0.05) during the clamp compared with saline infusion. Resveratrol co-infusion, however, completely prevented the effects induced by IH infusion: it prevented the decreases in GIR (P < 0.05 vs. IH), peripheral glucose utilization (P < 0.05 vs. IH), and insulin-induced suppression of EGP (P < 0.05 vs. IH). Resveratrol alone had no effect. Furthermore, IH infusion increased serine (307) phosphorylation of IRS-1 in soleus muscle (∼30-fold, P < 0.001), decreased total IRS-1 levels, and decreased IκBα content, consistent with activation of IKKß. Importantly, all of these effects were abolished by resveratrol (P < 0.05 vs. IH). These results suggest that resveratrol prevents FFA-induced hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance and, therefore, may help mitigate the health consequences of obesity.

FFA-induced hepatic insulin resistance in vivo is mediated by PKCδ, NADPH oxidase, and oxidative stress.

Fat-induced hepatic insulin resistance plays a key role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes in obese individuals. Although PKC and inflammatory pathways have been implicated in fat-induced hepatic insulin resistance, the sequence of events leading to impaired insulin signaling is unknown. We used Wistar rats to investigate whether PKCδ and oxidative stress play causal roles in this process and whether this occurs via IKKß- and JNK-dependent pathways. Rats received a 7-h infusion of Intralipid plus heparin (IH) to elevate circulating free fatty acids (FFA). During the last 2 h of the infusion, a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with tracer was performed to assess hepatic and peripheral insulin sensitivity. An antioxidant, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), prevented IH-induced hepatic insulin resistance in parallel with prevention of decreased IκBα content, increased JNK phosphorylation (markers of IKKß and JNK activation, respectively), increased serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and IRS-2, and impaired insulin signaling in the liver without affecting IH-induced hepatic PKCδ activation. Furthermore, an antisense oligonucleotide against PKCδ prevented IH-induced phosphorylation of p47(phox) (marker of NADPH oxidase activation) and hepatic insulin resistance. Apocynin, an NADPH oxidase inhibitor, prevented IH-induced hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance similarly to NAC. These results demonstrate that PKCδ, NADPH oxidase, and oxidative stress play a causal role in FFA-induced hepatic insulin resistance in vivo and suggest that the pathway of FFA-induced hepatic insulin resistance is FFA → PKCδ → NADPH oxidase and oxidative stress → IKKß/JNK → impaired hepatic insulin signaling.

Susceptibility to fatty acid-induced ß-cell dysfunction is enhanced in prediabetic diabetes-prone biobreeding rats: a potential link between ß-cell lipotoxicity and islet inflammation.

ß-Cell lipotoxicity is thought to play an important role in the development of type 2 diabetes. However, no study has examined its role in type 1 diabetes, which could be clinically relevant for slow-onset type 1 diabetes. Reports of enhanced cytokine toxicity in fat-laden islets are consistent with the hypothesis that lipid and cytokine toxicity may be synergistic. Thus, ß-cell lipotoxicity could be enhanced in models of autoimmune diabetes. To determine this, we examined the effects of prolonged free fatty acids elevation on ß-cell secretory function in the prediabetic diabetes-prone BioBreeding (dp-BB) rat, its diabetes-resistant BioBreeding (dr-BB) control, and normal Wistar-Furth (WF) rats. Rats received a 48-h iv infusion of saline or Intralipid plus heparin (IH) (to elevate free fatty acid levels ~2-fold) followed by hyperglycemic clamp or islet secretion studies ex vivo. IH significantly decreased ß-cell function, assessed both by the disposition index (insulin secretion corrected for IH-induced insulin resistance) and in isolated islets, in dp-BB, but not in dr-BB or WF, rats, and the effect of IH was inhibited by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. Furthermore, IH significantly increased islet cytokine mRNA and plasma cytokine levels (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and IL-10) in dp-BB, but not in dr-BB or WF, rats. All dp-BB rats had mononuclear infiltration of islets, which was absent in dr-BB and WF rats. In conclusion, the presence of insulitis was permissive for IH-induced ß-cell dysfunction in the BB rat, which suggests a link between ß-cell lipotoxicity and islet inflammation.

Lipid-induced pancreatic ß-cell dysfunction: focus on in vivo studies.

The phenomenon of lipid-induced pancreatic ß-cell dysfunction ("lipotoxicity") has been very well documented in numerous in vitro experimental systems and has become widely accepted. In vivo demonstration of ß-cell lipotoxicity, on the other hand, has not been consistently demonstrated, and there remains a lack of consensus regarding the in vivo effects of chronically elevated free fatty acids (FFA) on ß-cell function. Much of the disagreement relates to how insulin secretion is quantified in vivo and in particular whether insulin secretion is assessed in relation to whole body insulin sensitivity, which is clearly reduced by elevated FFA. By correcting for changes in in vivo insulin sensitivity, we and others have shown that prolonged elevation of FFA impairs ß-cell secretory function. Prediabetic animal models and humans with a positive family history of type 2 diabetes are more susceptible to this impairment, whereas those with severe impairment of ß-cell function (such as individuals with type 2 diabetes) demonstrate no additional impairment of ß-cell function when FFA are experimentally raised. Glucolipotoxicity (i.e., the combined ß-cell toxicity of elevated glucose and FFA) has been amply demonstrated in vitro and in some animal studies but not in humans, perhaps because there are limitations in experimentally raising plasma glucose to sufficiently high levels for prolonged periods of time. We and others have shown that therapies directed toward diminishing oxidative stress and ER stress have the potential to reduce lipid-induced ß-cell dysfunction in animals and humans. In conclusion, lipid-induced pancreatic ß-cell dysfunction is likely to be one contributor to the complex array of genetic and metabolic insults that result in the relentless decline in pancreatic ß-cell function in those destined to develop type 2 diabetes, and mechanisms involved in this lipotoxicity are promising therapeutic targets.

Salicylate prevents hepatic insulin resistance caused by short-term elevation of free fatty acids in vivo.

Recent evidence indicates that inflammatory pathways are causally involved in insulin resistance. In particular, Ikappa Balpha kinase beta (IKKbeta ), which can impair insulin signaling directly via serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrates (IRS) and/or indirectly via induction of transcription of proinflammatory mediators, has been implicated in free fatty acid (FFA)-induced insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. However, it is unclear whether liver IKKbeta activation plays a causal role in hepatic insulin resistance caused by acutely elevated FFA. In the present study, we wished to test the hypothesis that sodium salicylate, which inhibits IKKbeta , prevents hepatic insulin resistance caused by short-term elevation of FFA. To do this, overnight-fasted Wistar rats were subject to 7-h i.v. infusion of either saline or Intralipid plus 20 U/ml heparin (IH; triglyceride emulsion that elevates FFA levels in vivo) with or without salicylate. Hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with tracer infusion was performed to assess insulin-induced stimulation of peripheral glucose utilization and suppression of endogenous glucose production (EGP). Infusion of IH markedly decreased (P < 0.05) insulin-induced stimulation of peripheral glucose utilization and suppression of EGP, which were completely prevented by salicylate co-infusion. Furthermore, salicylate reversed IH-induced 1) decrease in Ikappa Balpha content; 2) increase in serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 (Ser 307) and IRS-2 (Ser 233); 3) decrease in tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and IRS-2; and 4) decrease in serine 473-phosphorylated Akt in the liver. These results demonstrate that inhibition of IKKbeta prevents FFA-induced impairment of hepatic insulin signaling, thus implicating IKKbeta as a causal mediator of hepatic insulin resistance caused by acutely elevated plasma FFA.

Evidence for a role of superoxide generation in glucose-induced beta-cell dysfunction in vivo.

OBJECTIVE: Prolonged elevation of glucose can adversely affect beta-cell function. In vitro studies have linked glucose-induced beta-cell dysfunction to oxidative stress; however, whether oxidative stress plays a role in vivo is unclear. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the role of oxidative stress in an in vivo model of glucose-induced beta-cell dysfunction. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Wistar rats were infused intravenously with glucose for 48 h to achieve 20 mmol/l hyperglycemia with/without co-infusion of one of the following antioxidants: taurine (2-amino ethanesulfonic acid) (TAU), an aldehyde scavenger; N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a precursor of glutathione; or tempol (4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl) (TPO), a superoxide dismutase mimetic. This was followed by islet isolation or hyperglycemic clamp. RESULTS: A 48-h glucose infusion decreased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), total superoxide, and mitochondrial superoxide in freshly isolated islets. TPO prevented the increase in total and mitochondrial superoxide and the beta-cell dysfunction induced by high glucose. However, TAU and NAC, despite completely normalizing H(2)DCF-DA (dihydro-dichlorofluorescein diacetate)-measured ROS, did not prevent the increase in superoxide and the decrease in beta-cell function induced by high glucose. TPO but not TAU also prevented beta-cell dysfunction induced by less extreme hyperglycemia (15 mmol/l) for a longer period of time (96 h). To further investigate whether TPO is effective in vivo, a hyperglycemic clamp was performed. Similar to the findings in isolated islets, prolonged glucose elevation (20 mmol/l for 48 h) decreased beta-cell function as assessed by the disposition index (insulin secretion adjusted for insulin sensitivity), and co-infusion of TPO with glucose completely restored beta-cell function. CONCLUSIONS: These findings implicate superoxide generation in beta-cell dysfunction induced by prolonged hyperglycemia.

Free fatty acid-induced reduction in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion: evidence for a role of oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo.

OBJECTIVE: An important mechanism in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes in obese individuals is elevation of plasma free fatty acids (FFAs), which induce insulin resistance and chronically decrease beta-cell function and mass. Our objective was to investigate the role of oxidative stress in FFA-induced decrease in beta-cell function. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used an in vivo model of 48-h intravenous oleate infusion in Wistar rats followed by hyperglycemic clamps or islet secretion studies ex vivo and in vitro models of 48-h exposure to oleate in islets and MIN6 cells. RESULTS: Forty-eight-hour infusion of oleate decreased the insulin and C-peptide responses to a hyperglycemic clamp (P < 0.01), an effect prevented by coinfusion of the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and taurine. Similar to the findings in vivo, 48-h infusion of oleate decreased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion ex vivo (P < 0.01) and induced oxidative stress (P < 0.001) in isolated islets, effects prevented by coinfusion of the antioxidants NAC, taurine, or tempol (4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-piperidine-1-oxyl). Forty-eight-hour infusion of olive oil induced oxidative stress (P < 0.001) and decreased the insulin response of isolated islets similar to oleate (P < 0.01). Islets exposed to oleate or palmitate and MIN6 cells exposed to oleate showed a decreased insulin response to high glucose and increased levels of oxidative stress (both P < 0.001), effects prevented by taurine. Real-time RT-PCR showed increased mRNA levels of antioxidant genes in MIN6 cells after oleate exposure, an effect partially prevented by taurine. CONCLUSIONS: Our data are the first demonstration that oxidative stress plays a role in the decrease in beta-cell secretory function induced by prolonged exposure to FFAs in vitro and in vivo.

Hyperinsulinemia, but not other factors associated with insulin resistance, acutely enhances colorectal epithelial proliferation in vivo.

The similarity in risk factors for insulin resistance and colorectal cancer (CRC) led to the hypothesis that markers of insulin resistance, such as elevated circulating levels of insulin, glucose, fatty acids, and triglycerides, are energy sources and growth factors in the development of CRC. The objective was thus to examine the individual and combined effects of these circulating factors on colorectal epithelial proliferation in vivo. Rats were fasted overnight, randomized to six groups, infused iv with insulin, glucose, and/or Intralipid for 10 h, and assessed for 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine labeling of replicating DNA in colorectal epithelial cells. Intravenous infusion of insulin, during a 10-h euglycemic clamp, increased colorectal epithelial proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. The addition of hyperglycemia to hyperinsulinemia did not further increase proliferation. Intralipid infusion alone did not affect proliferation; however, the combination of insulin, glucose, and Intralipid infusion resulted in greater hyperinsulinemia than the infusion of insulin alone and further increased proliferation. Insulin infusion during a 10-h euglycemic clamp decreased total IGF-I levels and did not affect insulin sensitivity. These results provide evidence for an acute role of insulin, at levels observed in insulin resistance, in the proliferation of colorectal epithelial cells in vivo.

Dynamic changes in {beta}-cell mass and pancreatic insulin during the evolution of nutrition-dependent diabetes in psammomys obesus: impact of glycemic control.

Recent studies ascribe a major role to pancreatic beta-cell loss in type 2 diabetes. We investigated the dynamics of beta-cell mass during diabetes evolution in Psammomys obesus, a model for nutrition-dependent type 2 diabetes, focusing on the very early and the advanced stages of the disease. P. obesus fed a high-calorie diet for 26 days developed severe hyperglycemia, beta-cell degranulation, and markedly reduced pancreatic insulin content. Reducing calories for 7 days induced normoglycemia in 90% of the animals, restoring beta-cell granulation and insulin content. To dissociate effects of diet from blood glucose reduction, diabetic animals received phlorizin for 2 days, which normalized glycemia and increased the pancreatic insulin reserve to 50% of control, despite a calorie-rich diet. During diabetes progression, beta-cell mass decreased initially but recovered spontaneously to control levels, despite persistent hyperglycemia. Strikingly, however, beta-cell mass did not correlate with degree of hyperglycemia or pancreatic insulin content. We conclude that reduced insulin reserve is the main cause of diabetes progression, whereas irreversible beta-cell mass reduction is a late event in P. obesus. The rapid recovery of the pancreas by phlorizin-induced normoglycemia implies a causal relationship between hyperglycemia and islet dysfunction. Similar mechanisms could be operative during the evolution of type 2 diabetes in humans.

Insulin does not mediate glucose stimulation of proinsulin biosynthesis.

It has recently been suggested that insulin augments its own production by a physiologically important feed-forward autocrine loop. We studied the kinetics of glucose-regulated proinsulin gene expression and proinsulin biosynthesis in normal rat islets with emphasis on the potential role of insulin as a mediator of the glucose effect. There was a time-dependent increase in steady-state proinsulin mRNA in islets cultured at 16.7 mmol/l compared with 3.3 mmol/l glucose; no early (1-3 h) increase in proinsulin gene expression was observed. In contrast, there was a threefold increase in proinsulin biosynthesis within 1 h of glucose stimulation that was not affected by inhibition of glucose-stimulated proinsulin gene transcription with actinomycin D. In addition, inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion with diazoxide had no effect on glucose-stimulated proinsulin mRNA or biosynthesis. Furthermore, addition of different concentrations of insulin to islets cultured in low glucose failed to affect proinsulin biosynthesis. Taken together, our data suggest that the early glucose-dependent increase in proinsulin biosynthesis is mainly regulated at the translational level, rather than by changes in proinsulin gene expression. Moreover, we could not demonstrate any effect of insulin on islet proinsulin mRNA level or rate of proinsulin biosynthesis. Thus, if insulin has any effect on the proinsulin biosynthetic apparatus, it is a minor one. We conclude that the secreted insulin is not an important mediator of insulin production in response to glucose.

Glucose-regulated proinsulin gene expression is required for adequate insulin production during chronic glucose exposure.

Psammomys obesus, an animal model of type 2 diabetes, shows rapid and marked depletion of pancreatic insulin content as hyperglycemia develops when fed a high-calorie diet. P. obesus islets do not increase proinsulin gene expression when exposed to high glucose, which may be related to absence of the conserved form of the transcription factor insulin promoter factor 1/pancreatic-duodenal homeobox 1. The present study assesses the importance of regulation of proinsulin gene expression by glucose for insulin production. Islets of diabetes-prone P. obesus and diabetes-resistant Wistar rats, cultured at various glucose concentrations for up to 24 h, were analyzed for proinsulin mRNA by quantitative RT-PCR, proinsulin biosynthesis by leucine incorporation into proinsulin, and insulin content and secretion by RIA. No increase in proinsulin mRNA was observed in P. obesus islets during 24-h exposure to increasing concentrations of glucose. In contrast, rat islets exposed to high glucose responded with a 2- to 3-fold stimulation of proinsulin mRNA. The failure of P. obesus islets to increase proinsulin mRNA was accompanied by a reduced proinsulin biosynthetic response: after 24 h, maximal proinsulin biosynthesis was blunted, associated with depletion of islet insulin content. Inhibition of glucose-stimulated proinsulin gene transcription in rat islets by actinomycin D did not affect the early proinsulin biosynthetic response, which, however, was reduced to the level of P. obesus islets after 24 h in culture. We conclude that stimulation of proinsulin gene transcription by glucose is necessary for maintaining proinsulin biosynthesis and hence conserving pancreatic insulin stores, under conditions of sustained secretory drive, but not for short-term regulation of proinsulin biosynthesis Our findings support the hypothesis that inadequate regulation of proinsulin gene expression by glucose contributes to the failure of P. obesus to cope with the increased demand for insulin associated with caloric excess, leading to depletion of insulin stores and diabetes.