Dynamics of viral disease outbreaks: A hundred years (1918/19-2019/20) in retrospect - Loses, lessons and emerging issues.

Infectious diseases continue to be the leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and a formidable obstacle to the development and well-being of people worldwide. Viruses account for more than half of infectious disease outbreaks that have plagued the world. The past century (1918/19-2019/20) has witnessed some of the worst viral disease outbreaks the world has recorded, with overwhelming impact especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). The frequency of viral disease outbreak appears to be increasing. Generally, although infectious diseases have afflicted the world for centuries and humankind has had opportunities to examine the nature of their emergence and mode of spread, almost every new outbreak poses a formidable challenge to humankind, beating the existing pandemic preparedness systems, if any, and causing significant losses. These underscore inadequacy in our understanding of the dynamics and preparedness against viral disease outbreaks that lead to epidemics and pandemics. Despite these challenges, the past 100 years of increasing frequencies of viral disease outbreaks have engendered significant improvements in response to epidemics and pandemics, and offered lessons to inform preparedness. Hence, the increasing frequency of emergence of viral outbreaks and the challenges these outbreaks pose to humankind, call for the continued search for effective ways to tackle viral disease outbreaks in real time. Through a PRISMA-based approach, this systematic review examines the outbreak of viral diseases in retrospect to decipher the outbreak patterns, losses inflicted on humanity and highlights lessons these offer for meaningful preparation against future viral disease outbreaks and pandemics.

Multicenter Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance among Gram-Negative Bacteria Isolated from Bloodstream Infections in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Gram-negative bacteria-causing bloodstream infections (BSIs), such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS), is a major public health concern. Nonetheless, AMR surveillance remains scarce in sub-Saharan Africa, where BSI treatment is largely empirical. The aim of the study was to determine the distribution and AMR patterns of BSI-causing NTS, K. pneumoniae, and other Gram-negative bacteria in Ghana. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted between April and December 2021 at eleven sentinel health facilities across Ghana as part of a pilot study on the feasibility and implementation of the human sector AMR surveillance harmonized protocol in sub-Saharan Africa. Gram-negative bacteria recovered from blood specimens of febrile patients were identified using MALDI-TOF and evaluated for antimicrobial resistance using the BD Phoenix M50 analyzer and Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion. The Department of Medical Microbiology at the University of Ghana served as the reference laboratory. RESULTS: Out of 334 Gram-negative blood isolates, there were 18 (5.4%) NTS, 85 (25.5%) K. pneumoniae, 88 (26.4%) Escherichia coli, 40 (12.0%) Acinetobacter baumannii, 25 (7.5%) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and 77 (23.1%) other Gram-negative bacteria. As a composite, the isolates displayed high resistance to the antibiotics tested-amoxicillin (89.3%), tetracycline (76.1%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (71.5%), and chloramphenicol (59.7%). Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins [ceftriaxone (73.7%), cefotaxime (77.8%), and ceftazidime (56.3%)] and fluoroquinolones [ciprofloxacin (55.3%)] was also high; 88% of the isolates were multidrug resistant, and the rate of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production was 44.6%. Antibiotic resistance in K. pneumoniae followed the pattern of all Gram-negative isolates. Antibiotic resistance was lower in NTS blood isolates, ranging between 16.7-38.9% resistance to the tested antibiotics. Resistance rates of 38.9%, 22.2%, and 27.8% were found for cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, and ceftazidime, respectively, and 27.8% and 23.8% for ciprofloxacin and azithromycin, respectively, which are used in the treatment of invasive NTS. The prevalence of multidrug resistance in NTS isolates was 38.9%. CONCLUSIONS: Multicenter AMR surveillance of Gram-negative blood isolates from febrile patients was well-received in Ghana, and the implementation of a harmonized protocol was feasible. High resistance and multidrug resistance to first- or second-choice antibiotics, including penicillins, third-generation cephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones, were found, implying that these antibiotics might have limited effectiveness in BSI treatment in the country. Continuation of AMR surveillance in Gram-negative blood isolates is essential for a better understanding of the extent of AMR in these pathogens and to guide clinical practice and policymaking.

Phenotypic and genotypic detection of carbapenemase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Accra, Ghana.

AIM: To describe the occurrence of carbapenem resistance among multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from clinical specimens in Accra using phenotypic and genotypic methods. METHODOLOGY: The study was cross-sectional, involving 144 clinical MDR E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates recovered from the Central Laboratory of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH). The isolates were re-cultured bacteriologically, identified using standard biochemical tests, and subjected to antibiotic susceptibility testing using the Kirby-Bauer method. Carbapenem resistance was determined based on imipenem, meropenem, and ertapenem zones of inhibition, as well as minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs). Carbapenemase production was determined phenotypically by modified Hodge test (MHT) and modified carbapenem inactivation method (mCIM), and genotypically with multiplex PCR targeting the blaKPC, blaIMP, blaNDM, blaVIM, and blaOXA-48 genes. RESULTS: Of the 144 MDR isolates, 69.4% were E. coli, and 30.6% were K. pneumoniae. The distribution of antimicrobial resistance rates among them was ampicillin (97.2%), cefuroxime (93.1%), sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (86.8%), tetracycline (85.4%), cefotaxime and cefpodoxime (77.1% each), amoxicillin-clavulanate (75%), ceftriaxone (73.6%), ciprofloxacin (70.8%), levofloxacin (66.0%), cefepime (65.3%), ceftazidime (64.6%), gentamicin (48.6), piperacillin-tazobactam (40.3%), cefoxitin (14.6%), amikacin (13.9%), ertapenem and meropenem (5.6% each), and imipenem (2.8%). In total, 5.6% (8/144) of them were carbapenem-resistant (carbapenem MIC range = 0.094-32.0 µg/ml), with 75% (6/8) of these testing positive by the phenotypic tests and 62.5% (5/8) by the genotypic test (of which 80% [4/5] carried blaOXA-48 and 20% (1/5) blaNDM). The blaVIM, blaIMP, and blaKPC genes were not detected. CONCLUSION: Although the rates of antibiotic resistance among the isolates were high, the prevalence of carbapenemase producers was low. The finding of blaOXA-48 and blaNDM warrants upscaling of antimicrobial resistance surveillance programmes and fortification of infection prevention and control programmes in the country.

Occurrence and significance of fluoroquinolone-resistant and ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae complex of the rectal flora in Ghanaian patients undergoing prostate biopsy.

Background: Reports suggest that fluoroquinolone (FQ)-resistant and ESBL-producing rectal flora are associated with infectious complications in men undergoing transrectal ultrasound-guided prostate needle biopsy (TRUS-B). Objectives: We investigated the relationship between carriage of FQ-resistant and ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae complex of the rectal flora, and the 30 day incidence rate of post-TRUS-B infectious complications. Methods: From 1 January 2018 to 30 April 2019, rectal swabs of 361 patients were cultured pre-TRUS-B for FQ-resistant and ESBL-producing flora. Patients were followed up for 30 days for infectious complications post-biopsy. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify risk factors. Results: Overall, 86.4% (n = 312/361) and 62.6% (n = 226/361) of patients carried FQ-resistant and ESBL-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae complex, respectively. Approximately 60% (n = 289/483) of the FQ-resistant and 66.0% (n = 202/306) of the ESBL-positive isolates exhibited in vitro resistance to the pre-biopsy prophylactic antibiotic regimen of levofloxacin and gentamicin. Amikacin and meropenem were the most effective antibiotics against the MDR rectal E. coli and K. pneumoniae complex (78.7% and 84.3%, respectively). The 30 day incidence rate for post-biopsy infections was 3.1% (n = 11/361), with an overall high probability (96.9%) of staying free of infections within the 30 day period post-TRUS-B. Antibiotic use in the previous 3 months was a risk factor for rectal carriage of FQ-resistant and ESBL-positive isolates. Rectal colonization by ESBL-positive E. coli and K. pneumoniae complex comprised an independent risk factor for post-biopsy infectious complications. Conclusions: The findings suggest that a change in prophylactic antibiotics to a more targeted regimen may be warranted in our institution.

Staphylococcus aureus Nasopharyngeal Carriage and Antimicrobial Resistance among Adults with Sickle Cell Disease at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, Ghana.

Background: Sickle cell disease (SCD) patients are an important risk group for Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) carriage and infections. Little is, however, known about the nasopharyngeal carriage epidemiology of the pathogen in this vulnerable population. Aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate S. aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) nasopharyngeal carriage prevalence, carriage determinants, and antimicrobial resistance among SCD adults in Ghana. Methodology: Nasopharyngeal swabs, obtained from 200 SCD adults recruited at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, were cultured for S. aureus, and these isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing via the Kirby-Bauer method. Results: The prevalence of S. aureus carriage was 41.5% (n = 83), and that of MRSA carriage was 1.0% (n = 2). Moreover, carriage of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) was the only determinant of S. aureus carriage identified (OR = 0.012, P < .0001). However, neither this variable nor the other features of the participants emerged as a determinant of MRSA carriage. The antimicrobial resistance rates decreased across penicillin (98.8%, n = 82), tetracycline (54.2%, n = 45), gentamicin (32.5%, n = 27), ciprofloxacin (21.7%, n = 18), erythromycin (18.1%, n = 15), clindamycin (10.8%, n = 9), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (10.8%, n = 9), teicoplanin (1.2%, n = 1), and linezolid (0.0%, n = 0), and the multidrug resistance rate was 45.8% (n = 38). Conclusion: The nasopharyngeal carriage prevalence of S. aureus in the current study was high, while that of MRSA was low. The isolates were highly resistant to several of the antibiotics tested, but not teicoplanin and linezolid, making these antibiotics suitable for treatment of S. aureus infections among the SCD population.

High prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage among infants at the Children's Hospital, Accra, Ghana.

INTRODUCTION: Infants are at risk of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonization and infection. The aim of this study was to investigate S. aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) colonization among infants, including the prevalence, predictors of colonization, and antibiogram. METHODOLOGY: The study was cross-sectional, and involved infants aged less than one year recruited at the Princess Marie Louise Children's Hospital in Accra, Ghana. Sociodemographic and clinical data of the participants were gathered with a structured questionnaire. Nasal swabs were also obtained from them and bacteriologically cultured. S. aureus was confirmed with the coagulase test, and MRSA was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the mecA gene. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of S. aureus was done using the Kirby-Bauer method. RESULTS: The carriage prevalence of S. aureus and MRSA were 34.9% (45/129) and 17.10% (22/129), respectively. Colonization with coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) was protective of both S. aureus (OR = 0.008; p < 0.001) and MRSA (OR = 0.052; p = 0.005) carriage. Maintenance of good hand hygiene prevented S. aureus carriage (OR = 0.16; p < 0.001). S. aureus resistance to antibiotics decreased across penicillin (96%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (61%), tetracycline (61%), erythromycin (39%), gentamicin (39%), fusidic acid (26%), rifampicin (17%), clindamycin (7%), and linezolid (0%); 68.8% S. aureus were multidrug resistant. CONCLUSIONS: S. aureus and MRSA prevalence were high among the infants. Colonization with CoNS and good hand hygiene maintenance were predictive of MRSA and methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) colonization, respectively.

Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Hospital Wastewater of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, Ghana.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the top 10 public health threats. One approach to tackling the AMR menace could involve expanding the range of AMR surveillance domains to include hospital wastewater (HWW), a domain that has largely been overlooked by researchers. Aim: To evaluate the occurrence of multidrug-resistant bacteria in hospital wastewater of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital (KBTH). Methodology: This was a longitudinal study involving 288 HWW samples consecutively collected across 12 weeks from the pool of wastewater emanating from 2 critical care units of KBTH-The Child Health Unit and the Maternity Unit-on Mondays and Thursdays, each week. The samples were cultured for bacteria, which were identified using the Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF) technique and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing via the Kirby-Bauer method. Results: In total, 294 bacteria of 23 different types, all being Gram-negative, were isolated from the 288 samples. The predominant ones were Escherichia coli (30.6%, n = 90), Klebsiella pneumoniae (11.2%, n = 33), Citrobacter freundii (10.9%, n = 32), Alcaligenes faecalis (5.8%, n = 17), and Pseudomonas mendocina (5.4%, n = 16). The prevalence of multidrug resistance among the isolates was 55.4% (n = 163). Moreover, the prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers was 15.6% (n = 46). E. coli accounted for the most ESBL-producing organisms (28.9%, n = 26). Conclusion: The wastewater generated by the Maternity and Child Health Units of KBTH harbored a wide range of multidrug resistant bacteria, with a good proportion of these being ESBL producers, and the predominant one being E. coli. The study thus identifies the wastewater of KBTH as an important source of multidrug resistant organisms, and underscores the significance of appropriate treatment of wastewater of the hospital and other clinical, and related settings prior to its discharge.

Surveillance of WHO Priority Gram-Negative Pathogenic Bacteria in Effluents from Two Seafood Processing Facilities in Tema, Ghana, 2021 and 2022: A Descriptive Study.

Antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria in effluents from seafood processing facilities can contribute to the spread of AMR in the natural environment. In this study conducted in Tema, Ghana, a total of 38 effluent samples from two seafood processing facilities were collected during 2021 and 2022, as part of a pilot surveillance project to ascertain the bacterial load, bacterial species and their resistance to 15 antibiotics belonging to the WHO AWaRe group of antibiotics. The bacterial load in the effluent samples ranged from 13-1800 most probable number (MPN)/100 mL. We identified the following bacterial species: E. coli in 31 (82%) samples, K. pneumoniae in 15 (39%) samples, Proteus spp. in 6 (16%) samples, P. aeruginosa in 2 (5%) samples and A. baumannii in 2 (5%) samples. The highest levels of antibiotic resistance (100%) were recorded for ampicillin and cefuroxime among Enterobacteriaceae. The WHO priority pathogens-E. coli (resistant to cefotaxime, ceftazidime and carbapenem) and K.pneumoniae (resistant to ceftriaxone)-were found in 5 (13%) effluent samples. These findings highlight the need for enhanced surveillance to identify the source of AMR and multi-drug resistant bacteria and an adoption of best practices to eliminate these bacteria in the ecosystem of the seafood processing facilities.

Alarming Levels of Multidrug Resistance in Aerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli Isolated from the Nasopharynx of Healthy Under-Five Children in Accra, Ghana.

Nasopharyngeal carriage of aerobic Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) may precede the development of invasive respiratory infections. We assessed the prevalence of nasopharyngeal carriage of aerobic GNB and their antimicrobial resistance patterns among healthy under-five children attending seven selected day-care centres in the Accra metropolis of the Greater Accra region of Ghana from September to December 2016. This cross-sectional study analysed a total of 410 frozen nasopharyngeal samples for GNB and antimicrobial drug resistance. The GNB prevalence was 13.9% (95% CI: 10.8-17.6%). The most common GNB were Escherichia coli (26.3%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (24.6%), and Enterobacter cloacae (17.5%). Resistance was most frequent for cefuroxime (73.7%), ampicillin (64.9%), and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (59.6%). The organisms were least resistant to gentamicin (7.0%), amikacin (8.8%), and meropenem (8.8%). Multidrug resistance (MDR, being resistant to ≥3 classes of antibiotics) was observed in 66.7% (95% CI: 53.3-77.8%). Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria constituted 17.5% (95% CI: 9.5-29.9%), AmpC-producing bacteria constituted 42.1% (95% CI: 29.8-55.5%), and carbapenemase-producing bacteria constituted 10.5% (95% CI: 4.7-21.8%) of isolates. The high levels of MDR are of great concern. These findings are useful in informing the choice of antibiotics in empiric treatment of GNB infections and call for improved infection control in day-care centres to prevent further transmission.

Improving awareness, diagnosis and management of invasive fungal infections in Ghana: establishment of the Ghana Medical Mycology Society.

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) and medical mycology receive little attention in Ghana. However, the present evolution of biomarker assays for IFIs, offers an opportunity for an increased access to fungal laboratory testing in resource-limited settings, and probably make a case for availability of essential antifungal agents. Using surveys and personal communications, the state of medical mycology and IFI in Ghana were highlighted. Inadequate awareness and insufficient access to fungal diagnostics and therapeutics were identified as the key challenges, the establishment of the Ghana Medical Mycology Society was discussed, and recommendations were made to improve the status quo.

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) receive little attention in Ghana, despite its growing relevance globally. Using surveys and personal communications, the main challenges were identified, and the formation of the Ghana Medical Mycology Society was discussed as a tool to improve the status quo.

Disposal habits and microbial load of solid medical waste in sub-district healthcare facilities and households in Yilo-Krobo municipality, Ghana.

The study aimed to assess disposal practices and quantify the microbial load present in SMW from ten sub-district level healthcare facilities and 385 households in Yilo Krobo municipality, Ghana. Disposal of solid medical waste (SMW) was assessed by questionnaire-based surveys, unstructured interviews and field observations. Microbiological analysis identified species and counts of bacteria present in SMW from both sources. Sociodemographic factors influencing the method of SMW disposal in households were evaluated using logistic regression analysis, with statistical significance set at p<0.05. Open burning (29%), burying (25%) and disposal at a dumpsite (49%) were common methods used by households to discard SMW. SMW disposal at a dumpsite was associated with age of respondents in households. Older people (50+ years) were three times more likely to place SMW in household waste later discarded at a dumpsite, compared to younger persons (20-30 years) [a0R, 95%CI = 3.37, 1.41-8.02]. In sub-district level healthcare facilities, open burning and burying were the most common methods used. Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium tetani, Enterococcus faecalis, Acinetobacter spp. Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus and Enterococcus faecium) were bacteria identified in SMW recovered from both the healthcare facilities and the households. Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter spp. and Clostridium tetani were found exclusively in untreated SMW generated in the healthcare facilities. Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. were found in one sample of treated SMW. The microbial load in SMW from healthcare facilities and households ranged from 0.036 x 103cfc/mg to 0.167 x 103 cfc/mg and from 0.118 x 103cfc/mg to 0.125 x 103cfc/mg respectively. This highlights the need for institutionalizing appropriate treatment methods in sub-district level facilities or strengthening the linkages with higher level facilities to ensure regular and adequate treatment of SMW. Public guidance on management of SMW generated in households which is context specific should also be provided.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nasal carriage among patients with diabetes at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital.

AIM: To investigate the epidemiology of S. aureus and MRSA nasal carriage among people with diabetes at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, including the prevalence, predictors of carriage, and antibiotic resistance. METHODOLOGY: This study was cross-sectional, involving 300 diabetes patients and 106 non-diabetic individuals. Swab specimens of the nares were obtained from the participants and bacteriologically-cultured. Identification and characterization of S. aureus and MRSA were based on standard bacteriological methods; antimicrobial susceptibility testing was by the Kirby-Bauer method. RESULTS: The prevalence of staphylococcal carriage, the diabetes group relative to the non-diabetes group, were 31.0% and 10.4% (S. aureus), and 3.3% and 0.0% (MRSA). Presence of diabetes predisposed to S. aureus carriage, but not MRSA nor coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) carriage (OR = 3.88; p < 0.0001). Colonization with CoNS was protective of S. aureus (OR = 0.039, p < 0.001) and MRSA (OR = 0.115, p = 0.043) colonization among the diabetics. The antimicrobial resistance patterns recorded among the S. aureus isolated from the diabetic individuals relative to the non-diabetics were as follows: penicillin (95% vs. 91%), tetracycline (37% vs. 27%), cotrimoxazole (30% vs. 36%), erythromycin (17% vs. 0%), norfloxacin (13% vs. 0%), clindamycin (12% vs. 0%), gentamicin (9% vs. 0%), fusidic acid (10% vs. 9%), linezolid (4% vs. 0%), and rifampicin (5% vs. 0%). The proportion of multidrug resistant S. aureus was 41% (n = 38) in the diabetes group and 0% in the non-diabetes group; this difference was statistically significant (p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of diabetes predisposed the participants to S. aureus carriage by almost four folds, but not MRSA carriage. Colonization with CoNS was protective of S. aureus and MRSA carriage in the diabetes group. Finally, linezolid remains a good therapeutic agent for anti-MRSA therapy.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infection of Diabetic Foot Ulcers at a Tertiary Care Hospital in Accra, Ghana.

AIM: This study investigated the spectrum of bacteria infecting the ulcers of individuals with diabetes at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, Ghana, focusing on Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), with respect to their prevalence, factors predisposing to their infection of the ulcers, and antimicrobial resistance patterns. METHODOLOGY: This cross-sectional study was conducted at The Ulcer Clinic, Department of Surgery, Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, involving 100 diabetic foot ulcer patients. The ulcer of each study participant was swabbed and cultured bacteriologically, following standard procedures. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done for all S. aureus isolated, using the Kirby-Bauer method. RESULTS: In total, 96% of the participants had their ulcers infected-32.3% (n = 31) of these had their ulcers infected with one bacterium, 47.9% (n = 46) with two bacteria, 18.8% (n = 18) with three bacteria, and 1.0% (n = 1) with four bacteria. The prevalence of S. aureus and MRSA were 19% and 6%, respectively. The distribution of the other bacteria was as follows: coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) (54%), Escherichia coli (24%), Pseudomonas spp. (19%), Citrobacter koseri and Morganella morgana (12% each), Klebsiella oxytoca (11%), Proteus vulgaris (8%), Enterococcus spp. (6%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (5%), Proteus mirabilis and Enterobacter spp. (4%), Klebsiella spp. (2%), and Streptococcus spp. (1%). The resistance rates of S. aureus decreased across penicillin (100%, n = 19), tetracycline (47.4%, n = 9), cotrimoxazole (42.1%, n = 8), cefoxitin (31.6%, n = 6), erythromycin and clindamycin (26.3% each, n = 5), norfloxacin and gentamicin (15.8% each, n = 3), rifampicin (10.5%, n = 2), linezolid (5.3%, n = 1), and fusidic acid (0.0%, n = 0). The proportion of multidrug resistance was 47.4% (n = 9). Except for foot ulcer infection with coagulase-negative Staphylococci, which was protective of S. aureus infection of the ulcers (OR = 0.029, p = 0.001, 95% CI = 0.004-0.231), no predictor of S. aureus, MRSA, or polymicrobial ulcer infection was identified. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of S. aureus and MRSA infection of the diabetic foot ulcers were high, but lower than those of the predominant infector, coagulase-negative Staphylococci and the next highest infecting agent, E. coli. Diabetic foot ulcers' infection with coagulase-negative Staphylococci protected against their infection with S. aureus. The prevalence of multidrug resistance was high, highlighting the need to further intensify antimicrobial stewardship programmes.

Nasopharyngeal Carriage of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) Children in the Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Era.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate Staphylococcus aureus nasopharyngeal carriage epidemiology in relation to other nasopharyngeal bacterial colonizers among sickle cell disease (SCD) children about five years into pneumococcal conjugate vaccine 13 (PCV-13) introduction in Ghana. The study involved bacteriological culture of nasopharyngeal swabs obtained from 202 SCD children recruited from the Princess Marie Louise Children's Hospital. S. aureus isolates were identified using standard methods and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Cefoxitin-resistant S. aureus isolates were screened for carriage of the mecA, pvl, and tsst-1 genes using multiplex polymerase chain reaction. The carriage prevalence of S. aureus was 57.9% (n = 117), and that of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was 3.5% (n = 7). Carriage of the mecA, pvl, and tsst-1 genes were respectively demonstrated in 20.0% (n = 7), 85.7% (n = 30), and 11.4% (n = 4) of the cefoxitin-resistant S. aureus isolates. PCV-13 vaccination (OR = 0.356, p = 0.004) and colonization with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) (OR = 0.044, p < 0.0001) each protected against S. aureus carriage. However, none of these and other features of the participants emerged as a determinant of MRSA carriage. The following antimicrobial resistance rates were observed in MRSA compared to methicillin-sensitive S. aureus: clindamycin (28.6% vs. 4.3%), erythromycin (42.9% vs. 19.1%), tetracycline (100% vs. 42.6%), teicoplanin (14.3% vs. 2.6%), penicillin (100% vs. 99.1%), amoxiclav (28.6% vs. 3.5%), linezolid (14.3% vs. 0.0%), ciprofloxacin (42.9% vs. 13.9%), and gentamicin (42.9% vs. 13.0%). The proportion of S. aureus isolates that were multidrug resistant was 37.7% (n = 46). We conclude that S. aureus was the predominant colonizer of the nasopharynx of the SCD children, warranting the continuous monitoring of this risk group for invasive S. aureus infections.

Nasopharyngeal Carriage and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profile of Staphylococcus aureus among Children under Five Years in Accra.

This cross-sectional study investigated the Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) nasopharyngeal carriage epidemiology in Accra approximately five years post-pneumococcal conjugate vaccines introduction in the country. Archived nasopharyngeal swabs collected from 410 children aged under five years old were bacteriologically cultured. The resultant S. aureus isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing and screening for carriage of the mecA and LukF-PV (pvl) genes, following standard procedures. The data obtained were analyzed with Statistical Products and Services Solutions (SPSS) using descriptive statistics and Chi square tests of associations. The isolated bacteria decreased across coagulase-negative Staphylococci (47.3%, n = 194), S. aureus (23.2%, n = 95), Diphtheroids (5.4%, n = 22), Micrococcus species (3.7%, n = 15), Klebsiella pneumoniae (3.2%, n = 13), Moraxella species and Citrobacter species (1.5% each, n = 6), Escherichia coli, Enterobacter species, and Pseudomonas species (0.9% each, n = 2). The MRSA carriage prevalence was 0.49% (n = 2). Individuals aged 37-48 months recorded the highest proportion of S. aureus carriage (32.6%, 31/95). Resistance of S. aureus to the antibiotics tested were penicillin G (97.9%, n = 93), amoxiclav (20%, n = 19), tetracycline (18.9%, n = 18), erythromycin (5.3%, n = 5), ciprofloxacin (2.1%, n = 2), gentamicin (1.1%, n = 1), cotrimoxazole, clindamycin, linezolid, and teicoplanin (0% each). No inducible clindamycin resistance was observed for the erythromycin-resistant isolates. Three (3.2%) of the isolates were multidrug resistant, of which 66.7% (2/3) were MRSA. The pvl gene was associated with 59.14% (55/93) of the methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) isolates, but was not detected among any of the MRSA isolates.

Colonization of HIV-Infected Children with Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

BACKGROUND: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses a public health threat owing to its extensive resistance to antibiotics, association with persistent outbreaks, and markedly increased healthcare costs. Moreover, HIV-infected individuals are at a greater risk for colonization with MRSA, and may act as reservoirs for subsequent transmission to other individuals. In Ghana, little is known about MRSA in relation to at-risk populations, such as HIV-infected children. The aim of this study was to investigate nasal carriage of S. aureus and MRSA among HIV-infected children in Accra, including the prevalence, risk factors and antibiotic resistance. METHODOLOGY: The study was cross-sectional, and involved 107 children with HIV infection and an equal number of sex- and age group- matched apparently healthy controls recruited from the Princess Marie Louis Children's Hospital in Accra. Nasal swab specimens were collected from the study participants and cultured for bacteria. S. aureus isolates were confirmed by the coagulase test while MRSA was confirmed by PCR of the mecA gene. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of S. aureus isolates was done by the Kirby Bauer method. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on demographic, household and clinical features of the study participants. A logistic regression analysis was performed to identify determinants of S. aureus and MRSA carriage among participants of both study groups. RESULTS: The carriage prevalence of S. aureus and MRSA were 44.9% (48) and 5.6% (6), respectively, among the HIV-infected individuals, and the corresponding values within the control group were 23.4% (25) and 0.9% (1). There was a significant association between HIV infection and S. aureus colonization (p < 0.001), but not MRSA colonization (p = 0.055). The main predictor of S. aureus colonization in both study groups was absence of colonization with coagulase negative staphylococcus (p < 0.001). Furthermore, the main predictor of MRSA colonization was regular hand washing with soap (p = 0.043); this was observed among HIV-infected individuals but not the control group. The proportion of S. aureus isolates that were multidrug resistant was 62.3% (33/53) in the HIV-infected group and 80% (20/25) in the control group (p = 0.192). CONCLUSIONS: HIV infection is a risk factor for nasal colonization of S. aureus among children in Accra but may not be for MRSA. Both the HIV-infected and uninfected children are reservoirs of multidrug resistant S. aureus. Demographic, household and clinical features appear to have little or no relationship with S. aureus and MRSA colonization in the study children.