The innovative animal monitoring device for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis ("I AM D EAE"): A more detailed evaluation for improved results.

BACKGROUND: Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is the most widely used animal model for multiple sclerosis (MS). It is a rapid model, commonly induced in rodents. Even if EAE does not replicate all MS characteristics, it is appropriate to investigate the development of the disease, including the immune and neuroinflammatory aspects. Besides, EAE has also been shown to be a relevant model for pre-clinical studies, as several drugs effective in the model are beneficial for MS patients. However, despite its widespread use, there is no consensus on the clinical assessment of animals. Most researchers perform a daily evaluation and classify them on a 5-point scale, but many authors also use in-between scores or apply other systems. Besides, among the 5-point scale, different score definitions are used, and most of them do not recapitulate the signs or symptoms each animal can show. Thus, based on our experience with EAE, the aim of the present work was to develop a new scoring system. METHODS: We designed the "I AM D EAE" tool that independently evaluates 9 different items - an innovative and detailed scoring system, yet simple for non-experts to use. The new scale was tested in EAE-induced mice at three experiments, and different evaluators assessed the animals blindly. RESULTS: The "I AM D EAE" scoring system highly correlates to the commonly used 5-point scale and, importantly, it enables a more detailed evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: Considering its high reproducibility and inter-rater reliability, "I AM D EAE" is a useful tool for EAE monitoring.

Stromal oncostatin M cytokine promotes breast cancer progression by reprogramming the tumor microenvironment.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is reprogrammed by cancer cells and participates in all stages of tumor progression. The contribution of stromal cells to the reprogramming of the TME is not well understood. Here, we provide evidence of the role of the cytokine oncostatin M (OSM) as central node for multicellular interactions between immune and nonimmune stromal cells and the epithelial cancer cell compartment. OSM receptor (OSMR) deletion in a multistage breast cancer model halted tumor progression. We ascribed causality to the stromal function of the OSM axis by demonstrating reduced tumor burden of syngeneic tumors implanted in mice lacking OSMR. Single-cell and bioinformatic analysis of murine and human breast tumors revealed that OSM expression was restricted to myeloid cells, whereas OSMR was detected predominantly in fibroblasts and, to a lower extent, cancer cells. Myeloid-derived OSM reprogrammed fibroblasts to a more contractile and tumorigenic phenotype and elicited the secretion of VEGF and proinflammatory chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL16, leading to increased myeloid cell recruitment. Collectively, our data support the notion that the stromal OSM/OSMR axis reprograms the immune and nonimmune microenvironment and plays a key role in breast cancer progression.

Assessing the Potential of Molecular Imaging for Myelin Quantification in Organotypic Cultures.

Ex vivo models for the noninvasive study of myelin-related diseases represent an essential tool to understand the mechanisms of diseases and develop therapies against them. Herein, we assessed the potential of multimodal imaging traceable myelin-targeting liposomes to quantify myelin in organotypic cultures. Methods: MRI testing was used to image mouse cerebellar tissue sections and organotypic cultures. Demyelination was induced by lysolecithin treatment. Myelin-targeting liposomes were synthetized and characterized, and their capacity to quantify myelin was tested by fluorescence imaging. Results: Imaging of freshly excised tissue sections ranging from 300 µm to 1 mm in thickness was achieved with good contrast between white (WM) and gray matter (GM) using T2w MRI. The typical loss of stiffness, WM structures, and thickness of organotypic cultures required the use of diffusion-weighted methods. Designed myelin-targeting liposomes allowed for semiquantitative detection by fluorescence, but the specificity for myelin was not consistent between assays due to the unspecific binding of liposomes. Conclusions: With respect to the sensitivity, imaging of brain tissue sections and organotypic cultures by MRI is feasible, and myelin-targeting nanosystems are a promising solution to quantify myelin ex vivo. With respect to specificity, fine tuning of the probe is required. Lipid-based systems may not be suitable for this goal, due to unspecific binding to tissues.

Gut Microbiota Changes in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis and Cuprizone Mice Models.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by the immune mediated attack on axons and the subsequent demyelination. There is growing evidence that the gut microbiota of MS patients is altered; however, the connection between demyelination events and changes in the gut microbiota has not been determined. The objective of the current work was to characterize the microbial dysbiosis in two murine demyelinating models and to study the correlation between them. Concurrently, their suitability as predictors of microbial changes in MS patients was assessed. To this purpose, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and cuprizone (CPZ) models were induced in C57BL/6 mice that were monitored for 4 and 9 weeks, respectively. Fecal samples were collected during disease progression. Motor skill performance was evaluated by EAE scale measurement in EAE mice and demyelination by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in CPZ ones. EAE and CPZ mice revealed drastic microbial changes according to disease progression, adding a new layer of complexity to the understanding of demyelination and remyelination processes. Besides, the reported microbial changes replicate most of the characteristics that define the potential dysbiosis in MS patients. The controlled environment and stable diet that animals have in research centers offer an exceptional scenario to modify animal's microbiota and provide opportunities to study host microbiota interplay with restrained conditions not achievable in human studies. Nevertheless the slight differences from murine model's and patient's microbiota should be considered in the design of studies aiming to modulate the microbiota.

RNA-Seq profiling of leukocytes reveals a sex-dependent global circular RNA upregulation in multiple sclerosis and 6 candidate biomarkers.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system, with higher prevalence in women, that leads to neurological disability. The disease course and clinical phenotype are highly variable, and therefore, biomarkers for the diagnosis, classification, monitoring of the disease and treatment assessment are needed. Studies have shown a dysregulation in the coding and non-coding RNAs and proposed some as biomarkers. However, still none of them have reached the clinical practice. Recently, circular RNAs (circRNAs) have emerged as new players in the transcriptome that hold a great potential as biomarkers in several diseases. Leukocytes from 30 MS patients and 20 healthy controls (HCs) were RNA-sequenced to study the linear and circular transcriptome. Differential expression analysis was performed by DESeq, and circRNA candidates were studied in a second cohort (70 MS and 46 HC) by RT-qPCR and in paired samples drawn during the relapse and remission phases (20 patients). Among the differentially expressed circRNAs, 96.1% are upregulated in patients compared with controls, but similar circRNA profiles are found between MS types. The same upregulation trend was observed in females but not in males or in the linear transcriptome. The upregulation of 6 circRNAs was validated, and a change in their expression was found between relapse and remission. The 6 circRNAs showed a good performance to discriminate patients from HC with a combined area under the curve of 0.852. There is global, specific and sex-dependent increase of circRNA expression in MS, and 6 circRNAs are proposed as potential biomarkers.

T cells and immune functions of plasma extracellular vesicles are differentially modulated from adults to centenarians.

Aging is a universal and complex process that affects all tissues and cells types, including immune cells, in a process known as immunosenescence. However, many aspects of immunosenescence are not completely understood, as the characteristics of the immune cells of nonagenarians and centenarians or the features and implications of extracellular vesicles (EVs). In this study, we analyzed blood samples from 51 individuals aged 20-49 and 70-104 years. We found that senescent CD8 cells accumulate with age, while there is a partial reduction of senescent CD4 cells in nonagenarians and centenarians. Moreover, plasma EVs carry T cell specific markers, but no accumulation of "senescent-like EVs" was found within any of analyzed age groups. Our functional studies of cocultures of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and EVs showed that EVs enhance T cell viability and, under phytohemagglutinin stimulation, they influence cytokine secretion and cell activation in an age-dependent manner. These results underline the importance of EVs on the immune system functioning, and open new perspectives to further study their implication in human aging.

Therapeutic Potential of Extracellular Vesicles for Demyelinating Diseases; Challenges and Opportunities.

Multiple Sclerosis is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system for which no remyelination therapy is available and alternative strategies are being tested. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as players in physiological and pathological processes and are being proposed as therapeutic targets and mediators. More concretely, EVs have shown to be involved in myelination related processes such as axon-oligodendrocyte communication or oligodendrocyte precursor cell migration. In addition, EVs have been shown to carry genetic material and small compounds, and to be able to cross the Blood Brain Barrier. This scenario led scientists to test the ability of EVs as myelin regeneration promoters in demyelinating diseases. In this review we will address the use of EVs as remyelination promoters and the challenges and opportunities of this therapy will be discussed.

The First Dose of Fingolimod Affects Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Multiple Sclerosis Patients.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound particles involved in intercellular communication. They carry proteins, lipids, and nucleotides such as microRNAs (miRNAs) from the secreting cell that can modulate target cells. We and others have previously described the presence of EVs in peripheral blood of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and postulated them as novel biomarkers. However, their immune function in MS pathogenesis and the effect during the onset of new immunomodulatory therapies on EVs remain elusive. Here, we isolated plasma EVs from fingolimod-treated MS patients in order to assess whether EVs are affected by the first dose of the treatment. We quantified EVs, analyzed their miRNA cargo, and checked their immune regulatory function. Results showed an elevated EV concentration with a dramatic change in their miRNA cargo 5 h after the first dose of fingolimod. Besides, EVs obtained prior to fingolimod treatment showed an increased immune regulatory activity compared to EVs obtained 5 h post-treatment. This work suggests that EVs are implicated in the mechanism of action of immunomodulatory treatments from the initial hours and opens a new avenue to explore a potential use of EVs for early treatment monitoring.

Progressive changes in non-coding RNA profile in leucocytes with age.

It has been observed that immune cell deterioration occurs in the elderly, as well as a chronic low-grade inflammation called inflammaging. These cellular changes must be driven by numerous changes in gene expression and in fact, both protein-coding and non-coding RNA expression alterations have been observed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from elder people. In the present work we have studied the expression of small non-coding RNA (microRNA and small nucleolar RNA -snoRNA-) from healthy individuals from 24 to 79 years old. We have observed that the expression of 69 non-coding RNAs (56 microRNAs and 13 snoRNAs) changes progressively with chronological age. According to our results, the age range from 47 to 54 is critical given that it is the period when the expression trend (increasing or decreasing) of age-related small non-coding RNAs is more pronounced. Furthermore, age-related miRNAs regulate genes that are involved in immune, cell cycle and cancer-related processes, which had already been associated to human aging. Therefore, human aging could be studied as a result of progressive molecular changes, and different age ranges should be analysed to cover the whole aging process.

SncRNA (microRNA &snoRNA) opposite expression pattern found in multiple sclerosis relapse and remission is sex dependent.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common inflammatory and degenerative disease that causes neurological disability. It affects young adults and its prevalence is higher in women. The most common form is manifested as a series of acute episodes of neurological disability (relapses) followed by a recovery phase (remission). Recently, non-coding RNAs have emerged as new players in transcriptome regulation, and in turn, they could have a significant role in MS pathogenesis. In this context, our aim was to investigate the involvement of microRNAs and snoRNAs in the relapse-remission dynamics of MS in peripheral blood leucocytes, to shed light on the molecular and regulatory mechanisms that underlie this complex process. With this approach, we found that a subset of small non-coding RNAs (sncRNA) is altered in relapse and remission, revealing unexpected opposite changes that are sex dependent. Furthermore, we found that a relapse-related miRNA signature regulated general metabolism processes in leucocytes, and miRNA altered in remission are involved in the regulation of innate immunity. We observed that sncRNA dysregulation is different in relapse and remission leading to differences in transcriptome regulation, and that this process is sex dependent. In conclusion, relapse and remission have a different molecular background in men and women.

Identification of ncRNAs as potential therapeutic targets in multiple sclerosis through differential ncRNA - mRNA network analysis.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have revealed a potential role for both small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) in the physiopathology of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). This potential implication has been mainly described through differential expression studies. However, it has been suggested that, in order to extract additional information from large-scale expression experiments, differential expression studies must be complemented with differential network studies. Thus, the present work is aimed at the identification of potential therapeutic ncRNA targets for RRMS through differential network analysis of ncRNA - mRNA coexpression networks. ncRNA - mRNA coexpression networks have been constructed from both selected ncRNA (specifically miRNAs, snoRNAs and sdRNAs) and mRNA large-scale expression data obtained from 22 patients in relapse, the same 22 patients in remission and 22 healthy controls. Condition-specific (relapse, remission and healthy) networks have been built and compared to identify the parts of the system most affected by perturbation and aid the identification of potential therapeutic targets among the ncRNAs. RESULTS: All the coexpression networks we built present a scale-free topology and many snoRNAs are shown to have a prominent role in their architecture. The differential network analysis (relapse vs. remission vs. controls' networks) has revealed that, although both network topology and the majority of the genes are maintained, few ncRNA - mRNA links appear in more than one network. We have selected as potential therapeutic targets the ncRNAs that appear in the disease-specific network and were found to be differentially expressed in a previous study. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the diseased state of RRMS has a strong impact on the ncRNA - mRNA network of peripheral blood leukocytes, as a massive rewiring of the network happens between conditions. Our findings also indicate that the role snoRNAs have in targeted gene silencing is a widespread phenomenon. Finally, among the potential therapeutic target ncRNAs, SNORA40 seems to be the most promising candidate.

Methods for extracellular vesicles isolation in a hospital setting.

The research in extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been rising during the last decade. However, there is no clear consensus on the most accurate protocol to isolate and analyze them. Besides, most of the current protocols are difficult to implement in a hospital setting due to being very time-consuming or to requirements of specific infrastructure. Thus, our aim is to compare five different protocols (comprising two different medium-speed differential centrifugation protocols; commercially polymeric precipitation - exoquick - acid precipitation; and ultracentrifugation) for blood and urine samples to determine the most suitable one for the isolation of EVs. Nanoparticle tracking analysis, flow cytometry, western blot (WB), electronic microscopy, and spectrophotometry were used to characterize basic aspects of EVs such as concentration, size distribution, cell-origin and transmembrane markers, and RNA concentration. The highest EV concentrations were obtained using the exoquick protocol, followed by both differential centrifugation protocols, while the ultracentrifugation and acid-precipitation protocols yielded considerably lower EV concentrations. The five protocols isolated EVs of similar characteristics regarding markers and RNA concentration; however, standard protocol recovered only small EVs. EV isolated with exoquick presented difficult to be analyzed with WB. The RNA concentrations obtained from urine-derived EVs were similar to those obtained from blood-derived ones, despite the urine EV concentration being 10-20 times lower. We consider that a medium-speed differential centrifugation could be suitable to be applied in a hospital setting as it requires the simplest infrastructure and recovers higher concentration of EV than standard protocol. A workflow from sampling to characterization of EVs is proposed.

Circulating microparticles reflect treatment effects and clinical status in multiple sclerosis.

AIM: To evaluate whether circulating microparticles (MPs) derived from three cell subtypes (platelets, total leukocytes or monocytes) obtained from multiple sclerosis (MS) patients were modulated depending on the clinical status and to investigate the effect of treatments on MP levels. PATIENTS & METHODS: The MP counts were assessed with flow cytometry. RESULTS: The platelet-derived MP level was higher in untreated MS patients than controls. Relapsing-remitting patients showed the highest levels in the three subtypes of MP while secondary progressive patients presented similar levels to those of healthy controls. Treatments had significant effects increasing the three subtypes of MP counts. CONCLUSION: We suggest that MPs play a role in MS pathogenesis, reflecting disease status with an increment of their shedding during inflammatory periods and turning to baseline during chronic progressive degeneration.

Extracellular Vesicles in Multiple Sclerosis: What are They Telling Us?

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound particles secreted by almost all cell types. They are classified depending on their biogenesis and size into exosomes and microvesicles or according to their cell origin. EVs play a role in cell-to-cell communication, including contact-free cell synapsis, carrying active membrane proteins, lipids, and genetic material both inside the particle and on their surface. They have been related to several physiological and pathological conditions. In particular, increasing concentrations of EVs have been found in many autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating disease characterized by relapsing of symptoms followed by periods of remission. Close interaction between endothelial cells, leukocytes, monocytes, and cells from CNS is crucial for the development of MS. This review summarizes the pathological role of EVs in MS and the relationship of EVs with clinical characteristics, therapy, and biomarkers of the disease.