A Qualitative Study of the Experience of COVID-19 Patients in Burkina Faso.

In Burkina Faso, the health system is characterized by systemic insufficient and antiquated health-care infrastructures. Consequently, few health-care establishments have the required resources to diagnose and manage patients with COVID-19, and fewer still have intensive care facilities for severely ill patients with COVID. Furthermore, there is a widespread scarcity of qualified health-care staff. The aim of this study was to explore the experiences of patients with COVID-19 who recovered after being cared for in Bobo Dioulasso and Ouagadougou. Using individual semistructured interviews, we performed a cross-sectional qualitative, descriptive study from June 12 to 30, 2020 with the aid of 13 well-educated patients who had survived COVID-19. The results reveal that prior to hospital admission, the main reason that prompted patients to seek care was onset of symptoms of COVID-19, regardless of whether they had been in contact with suspected or confirmed cases. Transmission was mainly believed to have occurred in the community, in the hospital, and during travel. Patient management was punctuated by frequent self-medication with medicinal plants or pharmaceutical drugs. The participants reported a negative perception of hospitalization or home-based management, with several forms of stigmatization, but a positive perception influenced by the satisfactory quality of management in health-care centers. This report of patient experiences could be helpful in improving the management of COVID-19 in Burkina Faso, both in the health-care setting and in home-based care.

The burden of the coronavirus disease 2019 virus infection in Burkina Faso: Results from a World Health Organization UNITY population-based, age-stratified sero-epidemiological investigation.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to estimate the anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody seroprevalence in the general population of Bobo-Dioulasso and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). METHODS: We collected from March to April 2021 blood samples from randomly selected residents in both main cities based on the World Health Organization (WHO) sero-epidemiological investigations protocols and tested them with WANTAI SARS-CoV-2 total antibodies enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits intended for qualitative assessment. We also recorded participants' socio-demographic and clinical characteristics and information on exposure to SARS-CoV-2. Data were analysed with descriptive and comparative statistics. RESULTS: We tested 5240 blood samples collected between 03 March and 16 April 2021. The overall test-adjusted seroprevalence for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was (67.8% [95% CI 65.9-70.2]) (N = 3553/3982). Seroprevalence was highest among participants aged 15-18 years old (74.2% [95% CI 70.5-77.5]) (N = 465/627), compared with those aged 10-14 years old (62.6% [95% CI 58.7-66.4]) (N = 395/631), or those over 18 (67.6% [95% CI 66.2-69.1]) (N = 2693/3982). Approximately 71.0% (601/860) of participants aged 10-18 years old who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies experienced no clinical COVID-19 symptoms in the weeks before the survey, compared with 39.3% (1059/2693) among those aged over 18 years old. CONCLUSION: This study reports the results of the first known large serological survey in the general population of Burkina Faso. It shows high circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in the two cities and a high proportion of asymptomatic adolescents. Further studies are needed to identify the SARS-CoV-2 variants and to elucidate the factors protecting some infected individuals from developing clinical COVID-19.

Incidence rate and predictors of COVID-19 in the two largest cities of Burkina Faso - prospective cohort study in 2021 (ANRS-COV13).

BACKGROUND: Early data on COVID-19 (based primarily on PCR testing) indicated a low burden in Sub-Saharan Africa. To better understand this, this study aimed to estimate the incidence rate and identify predictors of SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion in the two largest cities of Burkina Faso. This study is part of the EmulCOVID-19 project (ANRS-COV13). METHODS: Our study utilized the WHO Unity protocol for cohort sero-epidemiological studies of COVID-19 in general population. We conducted random sampling stratified by age group and sex. Individuals aged 10 years and older in the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso were included and surveyed at 4 time points, each 21 days apart, from March 3 to May 15, 2021. WANTAI SARS-CoV-2 Ab ELISA serological tests were used to detect total antibodies (IgM, IgG) in serum. Predictors were investigated using Cox proportional hazards regression. RESULTS: We analyzed the data from 1399 participants (1051 in Ouagadougou, 348 in Bobo-Dioulasso) who were SARS-CoV-2 seronegative at baseline and had at least one follow-up visit. The incidence rate of SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion was 14.3 cases [95%CI 13.3-15.4] per 100 person-weeks. The incidence rate was almost three times higher in Ouagadougou than in Bobo-Dioulasso (Incidence rate ratio: IRR = 2.7 [2.2-3.2], p < 0.001). The highest incidence rate was reported among women aged 19-59 years in Ouagadougou (22.8 cases [19.6-26.4] per 100 person-weeks) and the lowest among participants aged 60 years and over in Bobo-Dioulasso, 6.3 cases [4.6-8.6] per 100 person-weeks. Multivariable analysis showed that participants aged 19 years and older were almost twice as likely to seroconvert during the study period compared with those aged 10 to 18 years (Hazard ratio: HR = 1.7 [1.3-2.3], p < 0.001). Those aged 10-18 years exhibited more asymptomatic forms than those aged 19 years and older, among those who achieved seroconversion (72.9% vs. 40.4%, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The spread of COVID-19 is more rapid in adults and in large cities. Strategies to control this pandemic in Burkina Faso, must take this into account. Adults living in large cities should be the priority targets for vaccination efforts against COVID-19.

COVAX - Time to reconsider the strategy and its target.

COVAX, the international initiative supporting COVID-19 vaccination campaigns globally, is budgeted to be the costliest public health initiative in low- and middle-income countries, with over 16 billion US dollars already committed. While some claim that the target of vaccinating 70% of people worldwide is justified on equity grounds, we argue that this rationale is wrong for two reasons. First, mass COVID-19 vaccination campaigns do not meet standard public health requirements for clear expected benefit, based on costs, disease burden and intervention effectiveness. Second, it constitutes a diversion of resources from more cost-effective and impactful public health programmes, thus reducing health equity. We conclude that the COVAX initiative warrants urgent review.

COVID-19 epidemiological, sociological and anthropological investigation: study protocol for a multidisciplinary mixed methods research in Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: The world has high hopes of vaccination against COVID-19 to protect the population, boost economies and return to normal life. Vaccination programmes are being rolled out in high income countries, but the pandemic continues to progress in many low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) despite implementation of strict hygiene measures. We aim to present a comprehensive research protocol that will generate epidemiological, sociological and anthropological data about the COVID-19 epidemic in Burkina Faso, a landlocked country in West Africa with scarce resources. METHODS: We will perform a multidisciplinary research using mixed methods in the two main cities in Burkina Faso (Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso). Data will be collected in the general population and in COVID-19 patients, caregivers and health care professionals in reference care centers: (i) to determine cumulative incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the Burkinabe population using blood samples collected from randomly selected households according to the WHO-recommended protocol; (ii) develop a score to predict severe complications of COVID-19 in persons infected with SARS-CoV-2 using retrospective and prospective data; (iii) perform semi-structured interviews and direct observation on site, to describe and analyze the healthcare pathways and experiences of patients with COVID-19 attending reference care centers, and to identify the perceptions, acceptability and application of preventive strategies among the population. DISCUSSION: This study will generate comprehensive data that will contribute to improving COVID-19 response strategies in Burkina Faso. The lessons learned from the management of this epidemic may serve as examples to the country authorities to better design preventive strategies in the case of future epidemics or pandemics. The protocol was approved by the Ministry for Health (N° 2020-00952/MS/CAB/INSP/CM) and the Health Research Ethics Committee in Burkina Faso (N° 2020-8-140).

Do Targeted User Fee Exemptions Reach the Ultra-Poor and Increase their Healthcare Utilisation? A Panel Study from Burkina Faso.

Background: A component of the performance-based financing intervention implemented in Burkina Faso was to provide free access to healthcare via the distribution of user fee exemption cards to previously identified ultra-poor. This study examines the factors that led to the receipt of user fee exemption cards, and the effect of card possession on the utilisation of healthcare services. Methods: A panel data set of 1652 randomly selected ultra-poor individuals was used. Logistic regression was applied on the end line data to identify factors associated with the receipt of user fee exemption cards. Random-effects modelling was applied to the panel data to determine the effect of the card possession on healthcare service utilisation among those who reported an illness six months before the surveys. Results: Out of the ultra-poor surveyed in 2017, 75.51% received exemption cards. Basic literacy (p = 0.03), living within 5 km from a healthcare centre (p = 0.02) and being resident in Diébougou or Gourcy (p = 0.00) were positively associated with card possession. Card possession did not increase health service utilisation (ß = -0.07; 95% CI = -0.45; 0.32; p = 0.73). Conclusion: A better intervention design and implementation is required. Complementing demand-side strategies could guide the ultra-poor in overcoming all barriers to healthcare access.

Impact of a community-based intervention on Aedes aegypti and its spatial distribution in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: Several studies highlighted the impact of community-based interventions whose purpose was to reduce the vectors' breeding sites. These strategies are particularly interesting in low-and-middle-income countries which may find it difficult to sustainably assume the cost of insecticide-based interventions. In this case study we determine the spatial distribution of a community-based intervention for dengue vector control using different entomological indices. The objective was to evaluate locally where the intervention was most effective, using spatial analysis methods that are too often neglected in impact assessments. METHODS: Two neighbourhoods, Tampouy and Juvenat in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, were chosen among five after a survey was conducted, as part of an assessment related to the burden of dengue. As part of the community-based intervention conducted in Tampouy between August and early October 2016, an entomological survey was implemented in two phases. The first phase consisted of a baseline entomological characterization of potential breeding sites in the neighbourhood of Tampouy as well as in Juvenat, the control area. This phase was conducted in October 2015 at the end of the rainy season. The mosquito breeding sites were screened in randomly selected houses: 206 in Tampouy and 203 in Juvenat. A second phase took place after the intervention, in October 2016. The mosquito breeding sites were investigated in the same yards as during the baseline phase. We performed several entomological analyses to measure site productivity as well as before and after analysis using multilevel linear regression. We used Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISAs) to analyse spatial concentrations of larvae. RESULTS: After the intervention, it is noted that LISAs at Tampouy reveal few aggregates of all types and the suppression of those existing before the intervention. The analysis therefore reveals that the intervention made it possible to reduce the number of concentration areas of high and low values of pupae. CONCLUSIONS: The contribution of spatial methods for assessing community-based intervention are relevant for monitoring at local levels as a complement to epidemiological analyses conducted within neighbourhoods. They are useful, therefore, not only for assessment but also for establishing interventions. This study shows that spatial analyses also have their place in population health intervention research.

Does performance-based financing curb stock-outs of essential medicines? Results from a randomised controlled trial in Cameroon.

OBJECTIVE: In 2011, the government of Cameroon launched its performance-based financing (PBF) scheme. Our study examined the effects of the PBF intervention on the availability of essential medicines (EM). METHODS: Randomised control trial whereby PBF and three distinct comparison groups were randomised in a total of 205 health facilities across three regions. Baseline data were collected between March and May 2012 and endline data 36 months later. We defined availability of multiple EM groups by assessing stock-outs for at least one day over the 30 days prior to the survey date and estimated changes attributable to PBF using a series of difference-in-difference regression models, adjusted for relevant facility-level covariates. Data were analysed stratified by region and area to assess effect heterogeneity. RESULTS: Our estimates suggest that PBF intervention had no effect on the stock-outs of antenatal care drugs (P = 0.160), vaccines (P = 0.396), integrated management of childhood illness drugs (P = 0.681) and labour and delivery drugs (P = 0.589). However, the intervention was associated with a significant reduction of 34% in stock-outs of family planning medicines (P = 0.028). We observed effect heterogeneity across regions and areas, with significant decreases in stock-outs of family planning products in North-West region (P = 0.065) and in rural areas (P = 0.043). CONCLUSIONS: The PBF intervention in Cameroon had limited effects on the reduction of EMs stock-outs. These poor results were likely the consequence of partial implementation failure, ranging from disruption and discontinuation of services to limited facility autonomy in managing decision-making and considerable delay in performance payment.

OBJECTIF: En 2011, le gouvernement du Cameroun a lancé son programme de financement basé sur la performance (FBP). Notre étude a examiné les effets de l'intervention du FBP sur la disponibilité des médicaments essentiels (ME). MÉTHODES: Essai contrôlé randomisé dans le cadre duquel le FBP et trois groupes de comparaison distincts ont été randomisés dans un total de 205 établissements de santé dans trois régions. Les données de base ont été recueillies entre mars et mai 2012 et les données finales 36 mois plus tard. Nous avons défini la disponibilité de plusieurs groupes de ME en évaluant les ruptures de stock pendant au moins un jour au cours des 30 jours précédant la date de l'enquête et avons estimé les changements attribuables au FBP en utilisant une série de modèles de régression des différences dans les différences, ajustés pour les covariables pertinentes au niveau des établissements. Les données ont été analysées stratifiées par région et par zone afin d'évaluer l'hétérogénéité des effets. RÉSULTATS: Nos estimations suggèrent que l'intervention du FBP n'a eu aucun effet sur les ruptures de stocks de médicaments pour les soins prénataux (P = 0,160), les vaccins (P = 0,396), les médicaments pour la prise en charge intégrée des maladies infantiles (P = 0,681) et les médicaments pour le travail et l'accouchement (P = 0,589). Cependant, l'intervention a été associée à une réduction significative de 34% des ruptures de stock de médicaments pour la planification familiale (P = 0,028). Nous avons observé une hétérogénéité des effets entre les régions et les zones, avec des diminutions significatives des ruptures de stock de produits de planification familiale dans la région du Nord-Ouest (P = 0,065) et dans les zones rurales (P = 0,043). CONCLUSIONS: L'intervention du FBP au Cameroun a eu des effets limités sur la réduction des ruptures de stock des ME. Ces mauvais résultats étaient probablement la conséquence d'un échec partiel de la mise en œuvre, allant de la perturbation et de l'interruption des services à une autonomie limitée des établissements dans la gestion des prises de décisions et à un retard considérable dans le paiement pour les performances.

Developing the culture of ethics in population health intervention research in Canada.

Population health intervention research (PHIR) is a particular field of health research that aims to generate knowledge that contributes to the sustainable improvement of population health by enabling the implementation of cross-sectoral solutions adapted to social realities. Despite the ethical issues that necessarily raise its social agenda, the ethics of PHIR is still not very formalized. Unresolved ethical challenges may limit its focus on health equity. This contribution aims to highlight some of these issues and calls on researchers to develop a culture of ethics in PHIR. Three complementary ways are proposed: to build an ethical concept specific to this field, to promote a shared space for critical reflection on PHIR ethics, and to develop the ethical competence in PHIR for which a preliminary framework is proposed.

CIHR Health System Impact Fellows: Reflections on "Driving Change" Within the Health System.

Learning health systems necessitate interdependence between health and academic sectors and are critical to address the present and future needs of our health systems. This concept is being supported through the new Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Health System Impact (HSI) Fellowship, through which postdoctoral fellows are situated within a health system-related organization to help propel evidence-informed organizational transformation and change. A voluntary working group of fellows from the inaugural cohort representing diversity in geography, host setting and personal background, collectively organized a panel at the 2018 Canadian Association for Health Services and Policy Research Conference with the purpose of describing this shared scholarship experience. Here, we present a summary of this panel reflecting on our experiential learning in a practice environment and its ability for impact.

Evaluation of Effectiveness of a Community-Based Intervention for Control of Dengue Virus Vector, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

We evaluated the effectiveness of a community-based intervention for dengue vector control in Ouagadougou, the capital city of Burkina Faso. Households in the intervention (n = 287) and control (n = 289) neighborhoods were randomly sampled and the outcomes collected before the intervention (October 2015) and after the intervention (October 2016). The intervention reduced residents' exposure to dengue vector bites (vector saliva biomarker difference -0.08 [95% CI -0.11 to -0.04]). The pupae index declined in the intervention neighborhood (from 162.14 to 99.03) and increased in the control neighborhood (from 218.72 to 255.67). Residents in the intervention neighborhood were less likely to associate dengue with malaria (risk ratio 0.70 [95% CI 0.58-0.84]) and had increased knowledge about dengue symptoms (risk ratio 1.44 [95% CI 1.22-1.69]). Our study showed that well-planned, evidence/community-based interventions that control exposure to dengue vectors are feasible and effective in urban settings in Africa that have limited resources.

Factors associated with effective coverage of child health services in Burkina Faso.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with both crude and effective health service coverage of under-fives in rural Burkina Faso. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, 494 first-line health facilities, 7347 households and 12 497 under-fives were surveyed. Two sequential logistic random effects models were conducted to assess factors associated with crude and effective coverage. RESULTS: Of 614 children under-five with a reported illness episode, 427 (69.5%) received care at a health facility. Of those, 274 (64.1%) received care at a health facility providing at least the minimum threshold of service quality. We found that younger age, having a severe illness, shorter distance between household and health facility, and being from wealthier households were positively associated with crude coverage. In addition, low patient caseload and longer consultation had a positive association, while frequent facility supervisions had a negative association with effective coverage. Moreover, the nurse to clinical staff ratio at the health facility was positively associated with both crude and effective coverage. CONCLUSION: Our study found that crude coverage is associated with pre-disposing and enabling factors of health care access, while the availability of nurses is a strong predictor for both crude and effective coverage. This suggests that in the context of scarcity of resources, investing in human resources in health sector could be one of the priorities for decision-makers to ensure children in need not only access to healthcare but also good quality of care.

Characterisation of the rural indigent population in Burkina Faso: a screening tool for setting priority healthcare services in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: In Africa, health research on indigent people has focused on how to target them for services, but little research has been conducted to identify the social groups that compose indigence. Our aim was to identify what makes someone indigent beyond being recognised by the community as needing a card for free healthcare. METHODS: We used data from a survey conducted to evaluate a state-led intervention for performance-based financing of health services in two districts of Burkina Faso. In 2015, we analysed data of 1783 non-indigents and 829 people defined as indigents by their community in 21 villages following community-based targeting processes. Using a classification tree, we built a model to select socioeconomic and health characteristics that were likely to distinguish between non-indigents and indigents. We described the screening performance of the tree using data from specific nodes. RESULTS: Widow(er)s under 45 years of age, unmarried people aged 45 years and over, and married women aged 60 years and over were more likely to be identified as indigents by their community. Simple rules based on age, marital status and gender detected indigents with sensitivity of 75.6% and specificity of 55% among those 45 years and over; among those under 45, sensitivity was 85.5% and specificity 92.2%. For both tests combined, sensitivity was 78% and specificity 81%. CONCLUSION: In moving towards universal health coverage, Burkina Faso should extend free access to priority healthcare services to widow(er)s under 45, unmarried people aged 45 years and over, and married women aged 60 years and over, and services should be adapted to their health needs. ETHICS CONSIDERATIONS: The collection, storage and release of data for research purposes were authorised by a government ethics committee in Burkina Faso (Decision No. 2013-7-066). Respondent consent was obtained verbally.

Prophylactic neck dissection for low-risk differentiated thyroid cancers: Risk-benefit analysis.

BACKGROUND: The benefit of neck dissection is the subject of debate in differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). We analyze the risk-benefit of neck dissection for low-risk DTC without detectable lymph nodes. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study from 1983 to 2003; which included 295 patients without detectable lymph nodes who were treated by thyroidectomy with (C+) or without (C-) neck dissection. All patients had iodine131 therapy. We compared the frequency of remission, disease progression, and permanent complications between groups. RESULTS: Two hundred twelve patients comprised the C+ group, and 83 patients the C- group. Respectively for C+ versus C-, remission rates were 92% versus 89.2% (p = .40), and progressive disease observed was 3.3% versus 7.2% (p = .10). Permanent hypoparathyroidism occurred in 15.1% in C+ versus 3.6% in C- (p = .006). CONCLUSION: The risk-benefit analysis of neck dissection in patients with low-risk DTC shows no benefit in terms of complete remission or occurrence of progression. However, risk of complications seems to be higher in patients with neck dissection. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 38: 1091-1096, 2016.

[Organized or individual breast cancer screening: what motivates women?]. / Dépistage organisé ou individuel du cancer du sein ? Attitudes et représentations des femmes.

OBJECTIVE: The breast cancer screening programme, proposed to all women between 50 and 69 years, consisting of two-view mammography screening every two years, has been generalized in France since 2004. The programme coexists with opportunistic mammography screening, provided outside official frameworks. This qualitative study was designed to identify the pros and cons of these two screening modes. METHODS: Three hundred and forty-five women were randomly selected from women who had participated in a previous quantitative study and who were invited to attend for breast cancer screening in 13 French departments between 2010 and 2011. These women were asked to participate in a face-to-face semistructured interview conducted by a sociologist. RESULTS: 48 women (17 from deprived areas) were interviewed. All chose to be screened for breast cancer either because they feared cancer, or because they wanted to control their own health. Twenty-seven women chose the organized screening programme, which they considered to be trustworthy, as negative mammograms are double checked by a second radiologist. Twenty-one women preferred individual screening, which they considered to be more reliable, less anonymous and providing them with more liberty to take control of their own health. CONCLUSION: Gynaecologists play an important role in women's decision to undergo individual breast cancer screening. They also have an important role to play in the promotion of organized breast cancer screening programme with this public.