Midwife-led birthing centres in Bangladesh, Pakistan and Uganda: an economic evaluation of case study sites.

INTRODUCTION: Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality rates will require the expansion and strengthening of quality maternal health services. Midwife-led birth centres (MLBCs) are an alternative to hospital-based care for low-risk pregnancies where the lead professional at the time of birth is a trained midwife. These have been used in many countries to improve birth outcomes. METHODS: The cost analysis used primary data collection from four MLBCs in Bangladesh, Pakistan and Uganda (n=12 MLBC sites). Modelled cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted to compare the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER), measured as incremental cost per disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) averted, of MLBCs to standard care in each country. Results were presented in 2022 US dollars. RESULTS: Cost per birth in MLBCs varied greatly within and between countries, from US$21 per birth at site 3, Bangladesh to US$2374 at site 2, Uganda. Midwife salary and facility operation costs were the primary drivers of costs in most MLBCs. Six of the 12 MLBCs produced better health outcomes at a lower cost (dominated) compared with standard care; and three produced better health outcomes at a higher cost compared with standard care, with ICERs ranging from US$571/DALY averted to US$55 942/DALY averted. CONCLUSION: MLBCs appear to be able to produce better health outcomes at lower cost or be highly cost-effective compared with standard care. Costs do vary across sites and settings, and so further exploration of costs and cost-effectiveness as a part of implementation and establishment activities should be a priority.

Hostilities faced by people on the frontlines of sexual and reproductive health and rights: a scoping review.

Frontline workers for sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) provide life-changing and life-saving services to millions of people every year. From accompanying the pregnant, delivering babies and caring for the newborn to supporting those subjected to sexual violence; from treating debilitating infections to expanding contraceptive choices; from enabling access to safe abortion services to countering homophobia: all over the world frontline SRHR carers and advocates make it possible for so many more to experience dignity in sex, sexuality and reproduction. Yet they are also subjected to hostility for what they do, for whom they provide care, for where they work and for the issues they address. From ostracistion and harassment in the workplace to verbal threats and physical violence, hostilities can extend even into their private lives. In other words, as SRHR workers seek to fulfil the human rights of others, their own human rights are put at risk. Yet, as grave as that is, it is a reality largely undocumented and thus also underestimated. This scoping review sets out to marshal what is known about how hostilities against frontline SRHR workers manifest, against whom, at whose hands and in which contexts. It is based on review of six sources: peer-reviewed and grey literature, news reports, sector surveys, and consultations with sector experts and, for contrast, literature issued by opposition groups. Each source contributes a partial picture only, yet taken together, they show that hostilities against frontline SRHR workers are committed the world over-in a range of countries, contexts and settings. Nevertheless, the narratives given in those sources more often treat hostilities as 'one-off', exceptional events and/or as an 'inevitable' part of daily work to be tolerated. That works in turn both to divorce such incidents from their wider historical, political and social contexts and to normalise the phenomena as if it is an expected part of a role and not a problem to be urgently addressed. Our findings confirm that the SRHR sector at large needs to step-up its response to such reprisals in ways more commensurate with their scale and gravity.

Midwife-led birthing centres in four countries: a case study.

BACKGROUND: Midwives are essential providers of primary health care and can play a major role in the provision of health care that can save lives and improve sexual, reproductive, maternal, newborn and adolescent health outcomes. One way for midwives to deliver care is through midwife-led birth centres (MLBCs). Most of the evidence on MLBCs is from high-income countries but the opportunity for impact of MLBCs in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) could be significant as this is where most maternal and newborn deaths occur. The aim of this study is to explore MLBCs in four low-to-middle income countries, specifically to understand what is needed for a successful MLBC. METHODS: A descriptive case study design was employed in 4 sites in each of four countries: Bangladesh, Pakistan, South Africa and Uganda. We used an Appreciative Inquiry approach, informed by a network of care framework. Key informant interviews were conducted with 77 MLBC clients and 33 health service leaders and senior policymakers. Fifteen focus group discussions were used to collect data from 100 midwives and other MLBC staff. RESULTS: Key enablers to a successful MLBC were: (i) having an effective financing model (ii) providing quality midwifery care that is recognised by the community (iii) having interdisciplinary and interfacility collaboration, coordination and functional referral systems, and (iv) ensuring supportive and enabling leadership and governance at all levels. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study have significant implications for improving maternal and neonatal health outcomes, strengthening healthcare systems, and promoting the role of midwives in LMICs. Understanding factors for success can contribute to inform policies and decision making as well as design tailored maternal and newborn health programmes that can more effectively support midwives and respond to population needs. At an international level, it can contribute to shape guidelines and strengthen the midwifery profession in different settings.

Which low- and middle-income countries have midwife-led birthing centres and what are the main characteristics of these centres? A scoping review and scoping survey.

Evidence about the safety and benefits of midwife-led care during childbirth has led to midwife-led settings being recommended for women with uncomplicated pregnancies. However, most of the research on this topic comes from high-income countries. Relatively little is known about the availability and characteristics of midwife-led birthing centres in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This study aimed to identify which LMICs have midwife-led birthing centres, and their main characteristics. The study was conducted in two parts: a scoping review of peer-reviewed and grey literature, and a scoping survey of professional midwives' associations and United Nations Population Fund country offices. We used nine academic databases and the Google search engine, to locate literature describing birthing centres in LMICs in which midwives or nurse-midwives were the lead care providers. The review included 101 items published between January 2012 and February 2022. The survey consisted of a structured online questionnaire, and responses were received from 77 of the world's 137 low- and middle-income countries. We found at least one piece of evidence indicating that midwife-led birthing centres existed in 57 low- and middle-income countries. The evidence was relatively strong for 24 of these countries, i.e. there was evidence from at least two of the three types of source (peer-reviewed literature, grey literature, and survey). Only 14 of them featured in the peer-reviewed literature. Low- and lower-middle-income countries were more likely than upper-middle-income countries to have midwife-led birthing centres. The most common type of midwife-led birthing centre was freestanding. Public-sector midwife-led birthing centres were more common in middle-income than in low-income countries. Some were staffed entirely by midwives and some by a multidisciplinary team. We identified challenges to the midwifery philosophy of care and to effective referral systems. The peer-reviewed literature does not provide a comprehensive picture of the locations and characteristics of midwife-led birthing centres in low- and middle-income countries. Many of our findings echo those from high-income countries, but some appear to be specific to some or all low- and middle-income countries. The study highlights knowledge gaps, including a lack of evidence about the impact and costs of midwife-led birthing centres in low- and middle-income countries.

Exploring networks of care in implementing midwife-led birthing centres in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review.

The evidence for the benefits of midwifery has grown over the past two decades and midwife-led birthing centres have been established in many countries. Midwife-led care can only make a sustained and large-scale contribution to improved maternal and newborn health outcomes if it is an integral part of the health care system but there are challenges to the establishment and operation of midwife-led birthing centres. A network of care (NOC) is a way of understanding the connections within a catchment area or region to ensure that service provision is effective and efficient. This review aims to evaluate whether a NOC framework-in light of the literature about midwife-led birthing centres-can be used to map the challenges, barriers and enablers with a focus on low-to-middle income countries. We searched nine academic databases and located 40 relevant studies published between January 2012 and February 2022. Information about the enablers and challenges to midwife-led birthing centres was mapped and analysed against a NOC framework. The analysis was based on the four domains of the NOC: 1) agreement and enabling environment, 2) operational standards, 3) quality, efficiency, and responsibility, 4) learning and adaptation, which together are thought to reflect the characteristics of an effective NOC.Of the 40 studies, half (n = 20) were from Brazil and South Africa. The others covered an additional 10 countries. The analysis showed that midwife-led birthing centres can provide high-quality care when the following NOC elements are in place: a positive policy environment, purposeful arrangements which ensure services are responsive to users' needs, an effective referral system to enable collaboration across different levels of health service and a competent workforce committed to a midwifery philosophy of care. Challenges to an effective NOC include lack of supportive policies, leadership, inter-facility and interprofessional collaboration and insufficient financing. The NOC framework can be a useful approach to identify the key areas of collaboration required for effective consultation and referral, to address the specific local needs of women and their families and identify areas for improvement in health services. The NOC framework could be used in the design and implementation of new midwife-led birthing centres.

An analysis of the global diversity of midwifery pre-service education pathways.

BACKGROUND: The development of competent professional midwives is a pre-requisite for improving access to skilled attendance at birth and reducing maternal and neonatal mortality. Despite an understanding of the skills and competencies needed to provide high- quality care to women during pregnancy, birth and the post-natal period, there is a marked lack of conformity and standardisation in the approach between countries to the pre-service education of midwives. This paper describes the diversity of pre-service education pathways, qualifications, duration of education programmes and public and private sector provision globally, both within and between country income groups. METHODS: We present data from 107 countries based on survey responses from an International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) member association survey conducted in 2020, which included questions on direct entry and post-nursing midwifery education programmes. FINDINGS: Our findings confirm that there is complexity in midwifery education in many countries, which is concentrated in low -and middle-income countries (LMICS). On average, LMICs have a greater number of education pathways and shorter duration of education programmes. They are less likely to attain the ICM-recommended minimum duration of 36 months for direct entry. Low- and lower-middle income countries also rely more heavily on the private sector for provision of midwifery education. CONCLUSION: More evidence is needed on the most effective midwifery education programmes in order to enable countries to focus resources where they can be best utilised. A greater understanding is needed of the impact of diversity of education programmes on health systems and the midwifery workforce.

Global Cross-Sectional Study Evaluating the Attitudes towards a COVID-19 Vaccine in Pregnant and Postpartum Women.

Pregnant and postpartum women have an increased risk of severe complications from COVID-19. Many clinical guidelines recommend vaccination of these populations, and it is therefore critical to understand their attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccines. We conducted a cross-sectional online survey in November 2020 of currently pregnant and ≤1-year postpartum women in Brazil, India, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United States (US) that assessed their openness to COVID-19 vaccines and reasons for vaccine hesitancy. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate openness to receiving a vaccine. Out of 2010 respondents, 67% were open to receiving a COVID-19 vaccine themselves. Among pregnant and postpartum participants, 72% and 57% were willing to receive a vaccine, respectively. Vaccine openness varied significantly by country: India (87%), Brazil (71%), UK (59%), and US (52%). Across all participants, among the 33% who were unsure/not open to receiving a COVID-19 vaccine, the most common reason cited was safety/side effect concerns (51%). Participants were similarly open to their children/other family members receiving a COVID-19 vaccine. Presence of a comorbidity, a positive COVID-19 test result, and pregnancy were all significantly associated with positive vaccine acceptance. Targeted outreach to address pregnant and postpartum women's concerns about the COVID-19 vaccine is needed.

Diverse pre-service midwifery education pathways in Cambodia and Malawi: A qualitative study utilising a midwifery education pathway conceptual framework.

OBJECTIVES: Educated and skilled midwives are required to improve maternal and newborn health and reduce stillbirths. There are three main approaches to the pre-service education of midwives: direct entry, post-nursing and integrated programmes combining nursing and midwifery. Within these, there can be multiple programmes of differing lengths and qualifications, with many countries offering numerous pathways. This study explores the history, rationale, benefits and disadvantages of multiple pre-service midwifery education in Malawi and Cambodia. The objectives are to investigate the differences in education, roles and deployment as well as how key informants perceive that the various pathways influence workforce, health care, and wider health systems outcomes in each country. DESIGN: Qualitative data were collected during semi-structured interviews and analysed using a pre-developed conceptual framework for understanding the development and outcomes of midwifery education programmes. The framework was created before data collection. SETTING: The setting is one Asian and one African country: Cambodia and Malawi. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-one key informants with knowledge of maternal health care at the national level from different Government and non-governmental backgrounds. RESULTS: Approaches to midwifery education have historical origins. Different pathways have developed iteratively and are influenced by a need to fill vacancies, raise standards and professionalise midwifery. Cambodia has mostly focused on direct-entry midwifery while Malawi has a strong emphasis on dual-qualified nurse-midwives. Informants reported that associate midwifery cadres were often trained in a more limited set of competencies, but in reality were often required to carry out similar roles to professional midwives, often without supervision. While some respondents welcomed the flexibility offered by multiple cadres, a lack of coordination and harmonisation was reported in both countries. KEY CONCLUSIONS: The development of midwifery education in Cambodia and Malawi is complex and somewhat fragmented. While some midwifery cadres have been trained to fulfil a more limited role with fewer competencies, in practice they often have to perform a more comprehensive range of competencies. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Education of midwives in the full range of globally established competencies, and leadership and coordination between Ministries of Health, midwife educators and professional bodies are all needed to ensure midwives can have the greatest impact on maternal and newborn health and wellbeing.

Midwives speaking out on COVID-19: The international confederation of midwives global survey.

BACKGROUND: Maternity services around the world have been disrupted since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) representing one hundred and forty-three professional midwifery associations across the world sought to understand the impact of the pandemic on women and midwives. AIM: The aim of this study was to understand the global impact of COVID-19 from the point of view of midwives' associations. METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional survey using an on-line questionnaire was sent via email to every midwives' association member of ICM. SURVEY INSTRUMENT: The survey was developed and tested by a small global team of midwife researchers and clinicians. It consisted of 106 questions divided into seven discreet sections. Each member association was invited to make one response in either English, French or Spanish. RESULTS: Data were collected between July 2020 and April 2021. All respondents fulfilling the inclusion criteria irrespective of whether they completed all questions in the survey were eligible for analysis. All data collected was anonymous. There were 101 surveys returned from the 143 member associations across the world. Many countries reported being caught unaware of the severity of the infection and in some places, midwives were forced to make their own PPE, or reuse single use PPE. Disruption to maternity services meant women had to change their plans for place of birth; and in many countries maternity facilities were closed to become COVID-19 centres. Half of all respondents stated that women were afraid to give birth in hospitals during the pandemic resulting in increased demand for home birth and community midwifery. Midwifery students were denied access to practical or clinical placements and their registration as midwives has been delayed in many countries. More than 50% of the associations reported that governments did not consult them, and they have little or no say in policy at government levels. These poor outcomes were not exclusive to high-, middle- or low-income countries. CONCLUSIONS: Strong recommendations that stem from this research include the need to include midwifery representation on key government committees and a need to increase the support for planned out of hospital birth. Both these recommendations stand to enhance the effectiveness of midwives in a world that continues to face and may face future catastrophic pandemics.

The development of a global Midwifery Education Accreditation Programme.

BACKGROUND: Many countries are responding to the global shortage of midwives by increasing the student intake to their midwifery schools. At the same time, attention must be paid to the quality of education being provided, so that quality of midwifery care can be assured. Methods of assuring quality of education include accreditation schemes, but capacity to implement such schemes is weak in many countries. OBJECTIVE: This paper describes the process of developing and pilot testing the International Confederation of Midwives' Midwifery Education Accreditation Programme (ICM MEAP), based on global standards for midwifery education, and discusses the potential contribution it can make to building capacity and improving quality of care for mothers and their newborns. METHODS: A review of relevant global, regional and national standards and tools informed the development of a set of assessment criteria (which was validated during an international consultation exercise) and a process for applying these criteria to midwifery schools. The process was pilot tested in two countries: Comoros and Trinidad and Tobago. RESULTS: The assessment criteria and accreditation process were found to be appropriate in both country contexts, but both were refined after the pilot to make them more user-friendly. CONCLUSION: The ICM MEAP has the potential to contribute to improving health outcomes for women and newborns by building institutional capacity for the provision of high-quality midwifery education and thus improved quality of midwifery care, via improved accountability for the quality of midwifery education.

Midwifery education in New Zealand: Education, practice and autonomy.

New Zealand's midwifery education model is intertwined with a practice model which is underpinned by autonomy and partnership. The curriculum prepares students for practice across the scope of midwifery on their own responsibility. While students have formal learning opportunities within educational institutions they spend at least half of their programme learning through authentic work experiences alongside midwives and women. Midwifery educators partner with practising midwives to support students to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to practise midwifery in the New Zealand context. This paper provides an overview of New Zealand's midwifery education model and identifies how it is integrated with New Zealand's unique midwifery service.

Supporting New Zealand graduate midwives to stay in the profession: An evaluation of the Midwifery First Year of Practice programme.

BACKGROUND: the transition from undergraduate midwifery student to working as a confident midwife can be challenging for many newly qualified midwives. Supporting a smooth transition may have a positive impact on the confidence and retention of the new graduates within the workforce. In New Zealand the Midwifery First Year of Practice programme (MFYP) was introduced in 2007 as a structured programme of support for new graduate midwives for the whole of their first year of practice. The main components of the programme include support during clinical practice, provision of a funded mentor midwife chosen by the new graduate midwife, financial assistance for education and a requirement to undertake a quality assessment and reflection process at the end of the first year. AIM: the aim of this study was to explore the retention of new graduates in midwifery practice following participation in the Midwifery First Year of Practice programme. METHOD: data was obtained from the register of MFYP participants between the years 2007 and 2010. This data was cross referenced with the Midwifery Council of New Zealand register and workforce data for 2012. FINDINGS: between the years 2007 and 2010 there were 441 midwives who graduated from a midwifery pre-registration education programme in New Zealand. Of these 415 participated in the MFYP programme. The majority were of New Zealand European ethnicity with 10% identifying as Maori. The mean age of participants reduced from 36.4 (SD 7.3) in 2007 to 33.4 (SD 8.1) in 2010. The overall retention rate for new graduate midwives who had participated in the MFYP programme was 86.3%, with 358 midwives still practising in 2012. CONCLUSION: there is good retention of new graduate midwives within New Zealand and the MFYP programme would appear to support retention.

Outcomes of physiological and active third stage labour care amongst women in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: during the third stage of labour there are two approaches for care provision - active management or physiological (expectant) care. The aim of this research was to describe, analyse and compare the midwifery care pathway and outcomes provided to a selected cohort of New Zealand women during the third stage of labour between the years 2004 and 2008. These women received continuity of care from a midwife Lead Maternity Carer and gave birth in a variety of birth settings (home, primary, secondary and tertiary maternity units). METHODS: retrospective aggregated clinical information was extracted from the New Zealand College of Midwives research database. Factors such as type of third stage labour care provided; estimated blood loss; rate of treatment (separate to prophylaxis) with a uterotonic; and placental condition were compared amongst women who had a spontaneous onset of labour and no further assistance during the labour and birth. The results were adjusted for age, ethnicity, parity, place of birth, length of labour and weight of the baby. FINDINGS: the rates of physiological third stage care (expectant) and active management within the cohort were similar (48.1% vs. 51.9%). Women who had active management had a higher risk of a blood loss of more than 500mL, the risk was 2.761 when a woman was actively managed (95% CI: 2.441-3.122) when compared to physiological management. Women giving birth at home and in a primary unit were more likely to have physiological management. A longer labour and higher parity increased the odds of having active management. Manual removal of the placenta was more likely with active management (0.7% active management - 0.2% physiological p<0.0001). For women who were given a uterotonic drug as a treatment rather than prophylaxis a postpartum haemorrhage of more than 500mL was twice as likely in the actively managed group compared to the physiological managed group (6.9% vs. 3.7%, RR 0.54, CI: 0.5, 0.6). CONCLUSIONS: the use of physiological care during the third stage of labour should be considered and supported for women who are healthy and have had a spontaneous labour and birth regardless of birth place setting. Further research should determine whether the use of a uterotonic as a treatment in the first instance may be more effective than as a treatment following initial exposure prophylactically.

Risk of severe postpartum hemorrhage in low-risk childbearing women in new zealand: exploring the effect of place of birth and comparing third stage management of labor.

BACKGROUND: Primary postpartum hemorrhage is a leading cause of maternal mortality and morbidity internationally. Research comparing physiological (expectant) and active management of the third stage of labor favors active management, although studies to date have focused on childbirth within hospital settings, and the skill levels of birth attendants in facilitating physiological third stage of labor have been questioned. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of place of birth on the risk of postpartum hemorrhage and the effect of mode of management of the third stage of labor on severe postpartum hemorrhage. METHODS: Data for 16,210 low-risk women giving birth in 2006 and 2007 were extracted from the New Zealand College of Midwives research database. Modes of third stage management and volume of blood lost were compared with results adjusted for age, parity, ethnicity, smoking, length of labor, mode of birth, episiotomy, perineal trauma, and newborn birthweight greater than 4,000 g. RESULTS: In total, 1.32 percent of this low-risk cohort experienced an estimated blood loss greater than 1,000 mL. Place of birth was not found to be associated with risk of blood loss greater than 1,000 mL. More women experienced blood loss greater than 1,000 mL in the active management of labor group for all planned birth places. In this low-risk cohort, those women receiving active management of third stage of labor had a twofold risk (RR: 2.12, 95% CI: 1.39-3.22) of losing more than 1,000 mL blood compared with those expelling their placenta physiologically. CONCLUSIONS: Planned place of birth does not influence the risk of blood loss greater than 1,000 mL. In this low-risk group active management of labor was associated with a twofold increase in blood loss greater than 1,000 mL compared with physiological management. (BIRTH 39:2 June 2012).

Planned place of birth in New Zealand: does it affect mode of birth and intervention rates among low-risk women?

BACKGROUND: Midwives providing care as lead maternity caregivers in New Zealand provide continuity of care to women who may give birth in a variety of settings, including home, primary units, and secondary and tertiary level hospitals. The purpose of this study was to compare mode of birth and intrapartum intervention rates for low-risk women planning to give birth in these settings under the care of midwives. METHODS: Data for a cohort of low-risk women giving birth in 2006 and 2007 were extracted from the Midwifery Maternity Provider Organisation database. Mode of birth, intrapartum interventions, and neonatal outcomes were compared with results adjusted for age, parity, ethnicity, and smoking. RESULTS: Women planning to give birth in secondary and tertiary hospitals had a higher risk of cesarean section, assisted modes of birth, and intrapartum interventions than similar women planning to give birth at home and in primary units. The risk of emergency cesarean section for women planning to give birth in a tertiary unit was 4.62 (95% CI: 3.66-5.84) times that of a woman planning to give birth in a primary unit. Newborns of women planning to give birth in secondary and tertiary hospitals also had a higher risk of admission to a neonatal intensive care unit (RR: 1.40, 95% CI: 1.05-1.87; RR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.31-2.42) than women planning to give birth in a primary unit. CONCLUSIONS: Planned place of birth has a significant influence on mode of birth and rates of intrapartum intervention in childbirth.