Economic burden of tuberculosis in Tanzania: a national survey of costs faced by tuberculosis-affected households.

BACKGROUND: Although tuberculosis (TB) care is free in Tanzania, TB-associated costs may compromise access to services and treatment adherence resulting in poor outcomes and increased risk of transmission in the community. TB can impact economically patients and their households. We assessed the economic burden of TB on patients and their households in Tanzania and identified cost drivers to inform policies and programs for potential interventions to mitigate costs. METHODS: We conducted a nationally representative cross-sectional survey using a standard methodology recommended by World Health Organization. TB patients of all ages and with all types of TB from 30 clusters across Tanzania were interviewed during July - September 2019. We used the human capital approach to assess the indirect costs and a threshold of 20% of the household annual expenditure to determine the proportion of TB-affected households experiencing catastrophic cost. We descriptively analyzed the cost data and fitted multivariable logistic regression models to identify potential predictors of catastrophic costs. RESULTS: Of the 777 TB-affected households, 44.9% faced catastrophic costs due to TB. This proportion was higher (80.0%) among households of patients with multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB). Overall, cost was driven by income loss while accessing TB services (33.7%), nutritional supplements (32.6%), and medical costs (15.1%). Most income loss was associated with hospitalization and time for picking up TB drugs. Most TB patients (85.9%) reported worsening financial situations due to TB, and over fifty percent (53.0%) borrowed money or sold assets to finance TB treatment. In multivariable analysis, the factors associated with catastrophic costs included hospitalization (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 34.9; 95% confidence interval (CI):12.5-146.17), living in semi-urban (aOR = 1.6; 95% CI:1.0-2.5) or rural areas (aOR = 2.6; 95% CI:1.8-3.7), having MDR-TB (aOR = 3.4; 95% CI:1.2-10.9), and facility-based directly-observed treatment (DOT) (aOR = 7.2; 95% CI:2.4-26.6). CONCLUSION: We found that the cost of TB care is catastrophic for almost half of the TB-affected households in Tanzania; our findings support the results from other surveys recently conducted in sub-Saharan Africa. Collaborative efforts across health, employment and social welfare sectors are imperative to minimize household costs due to TB disease and improve access to care, patient adherence and outcomes.

Costs of novel tuberculosis diagnostics--will countries be able to afford it?

BACKGROUND: Four priority target product profiles for the development of diagnostic tests for tuberculosis were identified: 1) Rapid sputum-based (RSP), 2) non-sputum Biomarker-based (BMT), 3) triage test followed by confirmatory test (TT), and 4) drug-susceptibility testing (DST). METHODS: We assessed the cost of the new tests in suitable strategies and of the conventional diagnosis of tuberculosis as per World Health Organization guidelines, in 36 high tuberculosis and MDR burden countries. Costs were then compared to the available funding for tuberculosis at country level. RESULTS: Costs of diagnosing tuberculosis using RSP ranged US$93-187 million/year; if RSP unit cost is of US$2-4 it would be lower/similar cost than conventional strategy with sputum smear microscopy (US$ 119 million/year). Using BMT (with unit cost of US$2-4) would cost US$70-121 million/year and be lower/comparable cost than conventional diagnostics. Using TT with TPP characteristics (unit cost of US$1-2) followed by Xpert would reduce diagnostic costs up to US$36 million/year. Costs of using different novel DST strategies for the diagnosis of drug resistance would be higher compared with conventional diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Introducing a TT or a biomarker test with optimal characteristics would be affordable from a cost and affordability perspective at the current available funding for tuberculosis. Additional domestic or donor funding would be needed in most countries to achieve affordability for other new diagnostic tests.

Xpert MTB/RIF for diagnosis of tuberculosis and drug-resistant tuberculosis: a cost and affordability analysis.

Xpert MTB/RIF is a rapid test to diagnose tuberculosis (TB) and rifampicin-resistant TB. Cost and affordability will influence its uptake. We assessed the cost, globally and in 36 high-burden countries, of two strategies for diagnosing TB and multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB: Xpert with follow-on diagnostics, and conventional diagnostics. Costs were compared with funding available for TB care and control, and donor investments in HIV prevention and care. Using Xpert to diagnose MDR-TB would cost US$70-90 million per year globally and be lower cost than conventional diagnostics globally and in all high-burden countries. Diagnosing TB in HIV-positive people using Xpert would also cost US$90-101 million per year and be lower cost than conventional diagnostics globally and in 33 out of 36 high-burden countries. Testing everyone with TB signs and symptoms would cost US$434-468 million per year globally, much more than conventional diagnostics. However, in European countries, Brazil and South Africa, the cost would represent <10% of TB funding. Introducing Xpert to diagnose MDR-TB and to diagnose TB in HIV-positive people is warranted in many countries. Using it to test everyone with TB signs and symptoms is affordable in several middle-income countries, but financial viability in low-income countries requires large increases in TB funding and/or further price reductions.

Domestic and donor financing for tuberculosis care and control in low-income and middle-income countries: an analysis of trends, 2002-11, and requirements to meet 2015 targets.

BACKGROUND: Progress in tuberculosis control worldwide, including achievement of 2015 global targets, requires adequate financing sustained for many years. WHO began yearly monitoring of tuberculosis funding in 2002. We used data reported to WHO to analyse tuberculosis funding from governments and international donors (in real terms, constant 2011 US$) and associated progress in tuberculosis control in low-income and middle-income countries between 2002 and 2011. We then assessed funding needed to 2015 and how this funding could be mobilised. METHODS: We included low-income and middle-income countries that reported data about financing for tuberculosis to WHO and had at least three observations between 2002 and 2011. When data were missing for specific country-year combinations, we imputed the missing data. We aggregated country-specific results for eight country groups defined according to income level, political and economic profile, geography, and tuberculosis burden. We compared absolute changes in total funding with those in the total number of patients successfully treated and did cross-country comparisons of cost per successfully treated patient relative to gross domestic product. We estimated funding needs for tuberculosis care and control for all low-income and middle-income countries to 2015, and compared these needs with domestic funding that could be mobilised. FINDINGS: Total funding grew from $1·7 billion in 2002 to $4·4 billion in 2011. It was mostly spent on diagnosis and treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis. 43 million patients were successfully treated, usually for $100-500 per person in countries with high burdens of tuberculosis. Domestic funding rose from $1·5 billion to $3·9 billion per year, mostly in Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS), which collectively account for 45% of global cases, where national contributions accounted for more than 95% of yearly funding. Donor funding increased from $0·2 billion in 2002 to $0·5 billion in 2011, and accounted for a mean of 39% of funding in the 17 countries with the highest burdens (excluding BRICS) and a mean of 67% in low-income countries by 2011. BRICS and upper middle-income countries could mobilise almost all of their funding needs to 2015 from domestic sources. A full response to the tuberculosis epidemic to 2015, including investments to tackle multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, will require international donor funding of $1·6-2·3 billion each year. INTERPRETATION: Funding for tuberculosis control increased substantially between 2002 and 2011, resulting in impressive and cost-effective gains. The increasing self-sufficiency of many countries, including BRICS, which account for almost half the world's tuberculosis cases, is a success story for control of tuberculosis. Nonetheless, international donor funding remains crucial in many countries and more is needed to achieve 2015 targets. FUNDING: None.

Economic evaluation of public-private mix for tuberculosis care and control, India. Part I. Socio-economic profile and costs among tuberculosis patients.

SETTING: Bangalore City, India. OBJECTIVES: To assess the socio-economic profile, health-seeking behaviour and costs related to tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and treatment among patients treated under the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP). DESIGN: All 1106 new TB patients registered for treatment under the RNTCP in the second quarter of 2005 participated. Interviews at the beginning and at the end of treatment were conducted. A convenience sample of 32 patients treated outside the RNTCP also participated. RESULTS: Among the TB patients, respectively 50% and 39% were from low and middle standard of living (SL) households, and 77% were from households with a per capita income of less than US$1 per day. The first health contact was with a private practitioner in the case of >70% of patients. Mean patient delay was low, at 21 days, but the mean health system delay was 52 days. The average cost incurred by patients before treatment in the RNTCP was US$145, and during treatment it was US$21. Costs as a proportion of annual household income per capita were 53% for people from low SL households and 41% for those from other households. Costs during treatment faced by patients treated outside the RNTCP averaged US$127. CONCLUSION: Patients treated under the RNTCP through a public-private mix approach were predominantly poor. Many of them experienced considerable health expenditures before starting treatment. Additional efforts are required to reduce the delays and the number of health care providers consulted, and to ensure that patients are shifted to subsidised treatment within the RNTCP.

Financial resources required for tuberculosis control to achieve global targets set for 2015.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the financial resources required to achieve the 2015 targets for global tuberculosis (TB) control, which have been set within the framework of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). METHODS: The Global Plan to Stop TB, 2006-2015 was developed by the Stop TB Partnership. It sets out what needs to be done to achieve the 2015 targets for global TB control, based on WHO's Stop TB Strategy. Plan costs were estimated using spreadsheet models that included epidemiological, demographic, planning and unit cost data. FINDINGS: A total of US$ 56 billion is required during the period 2006-2015 (93% for TB-endemic countries, 7% for international technical agencies), increasing from US$ 3.5 billion in 2006 to US$ 6.7 billion in 2015. The single biggest cost (US$ 3 billion per year) is for the treatment of drug-susceptible cases in DOTS programmes. Other major costs are treatment of patients with multi- and extensively drug-resistant TB (MDR-TB and XDR-TB), collaborative TB/HIV activities, and advocacy, communication and social mobilization. Low-income countries account for 41% of total funding needs and 65% of funding needs for TB/HIV. Middle-income countries account for 72% of the funding needed for treatment of MDR-TB and XDR-TB. African countries require the largest increases in funding. CONCLUSION: Achieving the 2015 global targets set for TB control requires a major increase in funding. To support resource mobilization, comprehensive and costed national plans that are in line with the Global Plan to Stop TB are needed, backed up by robust assessments of the funding that can be raised in each country from domestic sources and the balance that is needed from donors.

Financing tuberculosis control: the role of a global financial monitoring system.

Control of tuberculosis (TB), like health care in general, costs money. To sustain TB control at current levels, and to make further progress so that global targets can be achieved, information about funding needs, sources of funding, funding gaps and expenditures is important at global, regional, national and sub-national levels. Such data can be used for resource mobilization efforts; to document how funding requirements and gaps are changing over time; to assess whether increases in funding can be translated into increased expenditures and whether increases in expenditure are producing improvements in programme performance; and to identify which countries or regions have the greatest needs and funding gaps. In this paper, we discuss a global system for financial monitoring of TB control that was established in WHO in 2002. By early 2007, this system had accounted for actual or planned expenditures of more than US$ 7 billion and was systematically reporting financial data for countries that carry more than 90% of the global burden of TB. We illustrate the value of this system by presenting major findings that have been produced for the period 2002-2007, including results that are relevant to the achievement of global targets for TB control set for 2005 and 2015. We also analyse the strengths and limitations of the system and its relevance to other health-care programmes.

Planning to improve global health: the next decade of tuberculosis control.

The Global Plan to Stop TB 2006-2015 is a road map for policy-makers and managers of national programmes. It sets out the key actions needed to achieve the targets of the Millennium Development Goals relating to tuberculosis (TB): to halve the prevalence and deaths by 2015 relative to 1990 levels and to save 14 million lives. Developed by a broad coalition of partners, the plan presents a model approach combining interventions that can feasibly be supplied on the ground. The main areas of activity set out in the plan are: scaling up interventions to control tuberculosis; promoting the research and development of improved diagnostics, drugs and vaccines; and engaging in related activities for advocacy, communications and social mobilization. Scenarios for the planning process were developed; these looked at issues both globally and in seven epidemiological regions. The scenarios made ambitious but realistic assumptions about the pace of scale-up and implementation coverage of the activities. A mathematical model was used to estimate the impact of scaling up current interventions based on data from studies of tuberculosis biology and from experience with tuberculosis control in diverse settings. The estimated costs of the activities set out in the Global Plan were based on implementing interventions and researching and developing drugs, diagnostics and vaccines; these costs were US$ 56 billion over 10 years. When translated into cost per disability adjusted life year averted, these costs compare favourably with those of other public health interventions. This approach to planning for global tuberculosis control is a valuable example of developing plans to improve global health that has relevance for other health issues.

Desenvolvimento da vida emocional durante o segundo ano de vida: narrativas e sistemas dinamicos

Tradicionalmente, a emocao tem sido concebida como um estado interno e preexistente manifestado na face. Assim, a emocao tem sido analisada atraves do estudo detalhado da face. O presente trabalho propoe uma perspectiva alternativa, defendendo a utilidade teorica e metodologica dos conceitos de narrativas e sistemas dinamicos para o estudo da emocao. Partindo desta perspectiva, a emocao e concebida enquanto emergente da interacao do individuo com seu meio. Em nossas investigacoes, enfatizamos, simultaneamente, as acoes corporais, vocais, e faciais de ambos parceiros bem como os contextos comunicativos construidos durante a interacao. Utilizamos o metodo de analise de narrativas aplicado a dados longitudinais de uma diade mae-bebe durante o segundo ano de vida. Procuramos ilustrar como o desenvolvimento das emocoes emerge das sutis transformacoes que ocorrem no relacionamento social entre o bebe e sua mae.

A produçäo vocal do bebê: construçäo partilhada pela díade / Baby's vocal production: a dyadic shared construction

Investiga a produçäo vocal do bebê como produto que emerge, ao longo do tempo, da dinämica processual das negociaçöes entre os parceiros diádicos. Analisa os registros em video-cassete de uma díade mäe-bebê, durante os primeiros seis meses de vida em situaçäo natural. Estuda duas organizaçöes diádicas: face-a-face e mäe-objeto-bebê. Observa o uso proporcionalmente mais frequente de sons semelhantes a vogais nas organizaçöes face-a-face, näo ocorrendo naquelas mäe-objeto-bebê. Encontra uma relaçäo entre a utilizaçäo proporcionalmente superior do processo de especularidade e o aumento de sons semelhantes a vogais, apenas nas organizaçöes face-a-face. Propöe uma perspectiva teórica e metodológica que considera o desenvolvimento da comunicaçäo como um processo relacional/dialógico que constrói significados partilhados criando o novo. A emergência dos Ss e da própria comunicaçäo resulta desta dinâmica processual

A producao vocal do bebe: construcao partilhada pela diade

Este trabalho investigou a producao vocal do bebe como produto que emerge, ao longo do tempo, da dinamica processual das negociacoes entre os parceiros diadicos. Foram analisados os registros em video-cassete de uma diade mae-bebe, durante os primeiros seis meses de vida do bebe, em situacao natural. Duas organizacoes diadicas foram estudadas: face-a-face e mae-objeto-bebe. O uso proporcionalmente mais frequente de sons semelhantes a vogais foi observado nas organizacoes face-a-face, nao ocorrendo naquelas mae-objeto-bebe. Foi encontrada uma relacao entre a utilizacao proporcionalmente superior do processo de especularidade e o aumento de sons semelhantes a vogais, apenas nas organizacoes face-a-face. E proposta uma perspectiva teorica e metodologica que considera o desenvolvimento da comunicacao como um processo relacional/dialogico que constroi significados partilhados criando o novo. A emergencia dos sujeitos e da propria comunicacao resulta desta dinamica processual.