Postformal reasoning during adolescence and young adulthood: the influence of problem relevancy.

The effect of perception of problem relevancy on postformal reasoning performance of two groups of adolescents (13 to 16 years and 17 to 19 years) and one group of young adults (20 to 29 years) was examined. Problems known to reflect issues and situations relevant to adolescents, adults, and older adults were presented to 105 subjects. The three age groups did differ with respect to their perception of problem relevancy. Further, perceived relevancy appeared to disrupt postformal reasoning among the youngest group of adolescents while facilitating performance among the young adults. These results are discussed in relation to previous findings by Blanchard-Fields (1986) and theoretical positions postulating the development of postformal reasoning. Implications for effective counseling of adolescents are considered.

Familial correlates of sexually active pregnant and nonpregnant adolescents.

The relationship of familial, demographic, and individual characteristics to the probability of pregnancy was examined among 124 sexually active adolescent females. Logistic regression analyses revealed that adolescent pregnancy status was a function of a combination of demographic and familial variables. Adolescents who were pregnant at the time of the study perceived their families as having low levels of family strength, perceived communication with parents as closed, came from homes characterized by family fragmentation (i.e., only one parent or no parent living in the home), came from low-income households, were unlikely to use any method of birth control, and were more likely to be married than their nonpregnant counterparts.

PIP: The differences in demographic characteristics, sexual practices, perceptions of family functioning, and individual factors among pregnant and nonpregnant adolescents were studied. 124 sexually active adolescent Caucasian females aged 12-19 years from an Arkansas clinic of which 57% were pregnant, participated in a nonrandom sample in 1988-89. 62.1% were from disrupted families (39.5% divorced, 12.9% remarried, and 9.7% widowed). Family disruption was higher among the pregnant sample (72% vs. 50.8%). 16.9% of the total sample were high school dropouts, but the majority were in the pregnant sample (28% vs. 5%). 91% of the pregnant sample had a family income of $20,000 vs. 66% of the nonpregnant sample. The procedures and instruments used are described. The following questionnaires were involved: 1) a demographic questionnaire for age, race, educational and marital status, parents' marital status, and socioeconomic status; 2) a sexual history questionnaire for pregnancy status, use of birth control, prior pregnancies and outcomes, and frequency of sexual activity; and 3) the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale, the Family Strengths Questionnaire, the Parent Communication Scale, and the Adolescent Self-Esteem Scale. Stepwise logistic regression and chi square tests were used to predict pregnancy status. 6 variables out of 11 were significantly related to pregnancy status: lower perception of family strengths, problems with parent communication, married, low family income, birth control, and single parent or no parent family composition. 80% of pregnant and nonpregnant teens were predicted. The mean for perception of family strengths for pregnant vs. nonpregnant adolescents was 33.29 vs. 39.87, which means for pregnant teens a perception of a lack of pride and harmony in their families. Lower scores were also evident on the Parent Communication Scale (-1.22 vs. 2.62). Although not significant, pregnant adolescents saw their families as flexible but not very cohesive and had lower self-esteem scores. Nonpregnant adolescents were more likely to use birth control than pregnant adolescents. The results support prior findings with some variation in the effect of parent and child communication, and insignificant effects of perception of family adaptability, and self-esteem. The limitations are the lack of generalizability to other regions, and the model itself which did not assess familial factors such as parental control or other developmental factors such as self-worth. Causality is not determined.

Early adolescent age and gender differences in patterns of emotional self-disclosure to parents and friends.

This study explored adolescent age and gender differences in patterns of emotional self-disclosure to parents and friends. The sample consisted of 174 junior high school students between the ages of 12 and 15. Results revealed that females exhibited greater emotional self-disclosure to parents and peers than did males, and that emotional self-disclosure to friends was greatest among older adolescents. In addition, while younger adolescents preferred to disclose information about their emotional state to parents, older adolescents chose friends. Exploratory hierarchical regression analyses revealed that emotional disclosure to parents was most strongly associated with adolescent perceptions of the openness of family communication, family cohesion, and satisfaction with family relationships. Emotional disclosure to friends was associated with adolescent self-esteem in the peer context and identity development. The results are discussed in terms of the complementary socializing processes that may operate within the contexts of family and friends.

Affective quality of family relations and adolescent identity exploration.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between adolescent pubertal status, the affective quality of family relations, and the early adolescent's exploration of a sense of ego identity. Fifty-one intact families with adolescents in the seventh grade agreed to participate. Each family member completed a battery of questionnaires designed to assess familial adaptation to pubertal growth and identity exploration. The results reveal that the affective quality of parent-adolescent relationships and the pubertal status of the adolescent appear to influence the adolescent's exploration of ego identity. The need to establish the functional significance of familial adaptation to adolescent pubertal growth for identity development is discussed.

Grade, pubertal status, and gender-related variations in conflictual issues among adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to describe adolescent perceptions of conflictual family issues, and to ascertain if the intensity of these issues is associated with adolescent grade in school, pubertal status, and gender. The sample was comprised of 279 junior high and senior high school students. Each participant completed a self-report measure of pubertal status, a demographic questionnaire, and the Issues Checklist. Principal factor analysis with varimax rotation of the Issues Checklist resulted in the retention of four factors accounting for 71.59% of the variance. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted for each emergent factor with grade in school, pubertal status, and gender serving as predictors. The results of these analyses indicated that the intensity of School Issues and Household Behavior Issues is greater among seventh and ninth graders than among eleventh graders. Self-Responsibility Issues were perceived as being most intense among transpubertal adolescents. Finally, boys perceived more intense conflict over Persistent Issues and Concerns than did girls.

An observational study of affective and assertive family interactions during adolescence.

The purpose of this study was to describe the role of affective and assertive interactions in familial adaptation to adolescent pubertal development. Twenty-five family triads consisting of the adolescent and parents were asked to engage in an Unrevealed Differences task. This interaction was audiorecorded, and statements were coded as affective or assertive using a modified version of Bales's ([1970) Personality and Interpersonal Behavior, Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, Inc., New York) Interaction Process Analysis. Family relationships appear redefined during transpuberty, a time when physical changes associated with the onset of puberty are at apeak. This redefinition of transpubertal family relations is characterized by a decline in the use of affective statements coupled with an increase in the use of assertive statements relative to prepubertal and postpubertal families. Differences in mother-adolescent and father-adolescent interactions also are discussed.

Adolescent pubertal status and affective family relationships: A multivariate assessment.

This research attempted to more adequately dimensionalize the study of affective family relations during adolescent pubertal maturation by employing a multivariate approach. Fifty-one families responded to an assessment battery consisting of a series of questionnaires designed to measure affective relations between parents and their adolescent children. Families were classified into prepubertal, transpubertal, or postpubertal groups according to their modal response on pubertal status criteria. A stepwise discriminant analysis was performed to identify measures that maximize between groups differences. Based on this analysis, a correct classification rate of 70% was achieved for all families. The two significant discriminant functions that emerged indicate that differences in family relationships are due to the transformation of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relations. The pattern of results replicate those of other researchers and provide elaborations concerning the affective nature of family relations during adolescence.

Visual comparison by preschool children: effects of age, sex, and cognitive style.

Differences in visual scanning by reflective and impulsive children can be detected as young as 3 years of age. Such differences are indicative of differences in information. Such differences emerge rapidly between the ages of 3 and 5 years, and females and reflective males develop faster than impulsive males.