[A brief history of marijuana in the western world]. / Breve historia sobre la marihuana en Occidente.

Marijuana is a substance with a long and controversial history. At different times in its history, which goes back over 5,000 years, this plant has been used for different purposes, ranging from recreational and leisure to its use in the treatment of several diseases or to offer relief in processes that entail a certain type of malaise, and including its consideration as a means of relaxation and meditation. Although it was supposed that the roots of marijuana lay in Central America, it is now known that this is but an urban legend with little credibility and that its origins can be found recorded in Chinese medical references dating back to the year 2737 BC. Although this plant was not originally from Central America, it has aroused interest around the world, and above all in Mexico. It is in this country where the use of cannabis has gone from applications in textiles and medicine to its free sale, the bans on its use due to political and social pressures, its tolerance and, recently, its decriminalisation for recreational and medicinal use. Unfortunately there are few references on the history of this plant in Mexico, and thus we have considered it interesting to present some data about the generalities of marijuana, a brief history in the world, the development of decriminalisation in North America, its medicinal uses and its course through Mexico to the present day.

TITLE: Breve historia sobre la marihuana en Occidente.La marihuana es una sustancia con una extensa y controvertida historia. A lo largo del tiempo, esta planta, y desde hace mas de 5.000 años, ha sido utilizada para diferentes fines, que van desde el uso ludico y recreativo, pasando por un medio de relajacion y meditacion, hasta su uso en el tratamiento de varias enfermedades o el alivio de procesos vinculados a cierto tipo de malestares. Aunque se supuso que la marihuana tenia su origen en Mesoamerica, ahora se sabe que es solo una leyenda urbana de poca credibilidad y que sus origenes los podemos registrar en referencias medicas chinas datadas alrededor del año 2737 a. de C. Si bien esta planta no tiene un origen mesoamericano, si ha generado interes en el mundo, y sobre todo en Mexico. Es en este pais donde el uso del cannabis ha ido desde intereses textiles y medicinales hasta el consumo ludico, pasando por su venta libre, la prohibicion por presiones politicas y sociales, su tolerancia y, recientemente, su despenalizacion para uso ludico y medicinal. Desgraciadamente existen pocas referencias de la historia de esta planta en Mexico, por lo que ha sido de nuestro interes presentar algunos datos sobre las generalidades de la marihuana, una breve historia en el mundo, el desarrollo de la despenalizacion en Norteamerica, sus usos medicinales y su paso por Mexico hasta nuestros dias.

Interaction networks and the use of floral resources by male orchid bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Euglossini) in a primary rain forests of the Chocó Region (Colombia).

Orchid bees are important keystone pollinators from the Neotropics. With the aim to study the relationships between orchid bees and their nectar and aromatic host species, we made systematic samplings of males across two conservation areas in the biogeographic Choc6 Region of Colombia. We used chemical baits to collect 352 male bees during five months. The pollen attached to their bodies was extracted for palynological identification and to estimate interaction networks. The euglossine community consisted of at least 22 species including Eg. maculilabris, Eg. orellana, Eg. championi and Eg. ignita. The male bees were associated with 84 plants but depended on a small group of them (Peperomia spp. and Anthurium spp, as well as species of Solanaceae, Ericaceae and Malpighiaceae) which were widely distributed across the altitudinal gradient, and were available through the year. The resulting interaction networks revealed a typical nested pattern usually found in plant-pollinator interactions, with several rare bee and plant species interaction with a small group of generalist bees and plant species. Albeit, we found variation within networks related to species composition. Such variation may be a consequence of specific differences in plant flowering phenology.

Interaction networks and the use of floral resources by male orchid bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Euglossini) in a primary rain forests of the Chocó Region (Colombia) / Redes de interacciones y uso de recursos florales por abejas macho de orquídeas (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Euglossini) en un bosque primario de la región del Chocó (Colombia)

Orchid bees are important keystone pollinators from the Neotropics. With the aim to study the relationships between orchid bees and their nectar and aromatic host species, we made systematic samplings of males across two conservation areas in the biogeographic Chocó Region of Colombia. We used chemical baits to collect 352 male bees during five months. The pollen attached to their bodies was extracted for palynological identification and to estimate interaction networks. The euglossine community consisted of at least 22 species including Eg. maculilabris, Eg. orellana, Eg. championiand Eg. ignita.The male bees were associated with 84 plants but depended on a small group of them (Peperomiaspp. and Anthuriumspp, as well as species of Solanaceae, Ericaceae and Malpighiaceae) which were widely distributed across the altitudinal gradient, and were available through the year. The resulting interaction networks revealed a typical nested pattern usually found in plant-pollinator interactions, with several rare bee and plant species interaction with a small group of generalist bees and plant species. Albeit, we found variation within networks related to species composition. Such variation may be a consequence of specific differences in plant flowering phenology.

Las abejas de las orquídeas son uno de los principales grupos de polinizadores con distribución exclusivamente Neotropical. Con el fin de documentar las relaciones de estas abejas con sus plantas fuente de néctar y sustancias aromáticas, realizamos muestreos sistemáticos de 352 machos durante cinco meses usando cebos químicos para atraerlos en dos áreas de conservación en el Chocó biogeográfico. Se extrajo el polen adherido al cuerpo de los especímenes recolectados para identificación palinológica de las especies vegetales visitadas por la comunidad y posterior análisis de redes de interacciones. Encontramos que la comunidad de euglossinos está conformada por al menos 22 especies de abejas. Dentro de la comunidad fueron más comunes: Eg. maculilabris, Eg. orellana, Eg. championiy Eg. ignita.Las especies de abejas se relacionan con no menos de 84 especies de plantas pero dependen más frecuentemente de un pequeño grupo de especies vegetales ampliamente distribuidas en el gradiente altitudinal mues-treado y que se encuentran disponibles durante gran parte del año. Dentro de este pequeño grupo destacan especies pertenecientes a los géneros Anthuriumy Peperomiay a las familias Solanaceae, Ericaceae y Malpighiaceae. Las redes de interacciones resultantes muestran un patrón anidado en el que muchas especies de abejas o plantas raras interac-túan con un pequeño grupo de especies de abejas o plantas generalistas. También encontramos variaciones espaciales y temporales en las redes en cuanto a la composición de especies y la manera como se distribuyen las interacciones. Estas variaciones estarían determinadas por las diferencias en la fenología de las plantas y en las condiciones climáticas entre los sitios muestreados que se encuentran muy cercanos entre sí.

Characterization of the first report of Mycobacterium timonense infecting an HIV patient in an Ecuadorian hospital.

Mycobacterium timonense is a non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) described in southern France in 2009, and to our knowledge, not reported again as a human pathogen in indexed literature. The aim of this work was to characterize the first clinical isolate of M. timonense in Ecuador. Time of growth, biochemical tests, thin layer growth test, PCR-RFLP analysis of the hsp65 gene and MALDI-TOF spectra analysis were not able to identify the species. The species identification was achieved through sequencing of rrs, hsp65 and rpoB genes. The results highlight the necessity to set up a sequencing method to identify emerging NTM in Ecuadorian clinical facilities.

The ecological basis for biogeographic classification: an example in orchid bees (Apidae: Euglossini).

Biogeography has been difficult to apply as a methodological approach because organismic biology is incomplete at levels where the process of formulating comparisons and analogies is complex. The study of insect biogeography became necessary because insects possess numerous evolutionary traits and play an important role as pollinators. Among insects, the euglossine bees, or orchid bees, attract interest because the study of their biology allows us to explain important steps in the evolution of social behavior and many other adaptive tradeoffs. We analyzed the distribution of morphological characteristics in Colombian orchid bees from an ecological perspective. The aim of this study was to observe the distribution of these attributes on a regional basis. Data corresponding to Colombian euglossine species were ordered with a correspondence analysis and with subsequent hierarchical clustering. Later, and based on community proprieties, we compared the resulting hierarchical model with the collection localities to seek to identify a biogeographic classification pattern. From this analysis, we derived a model that classifies the territory of Colombia into 11 biogeographic units or natural clusters. Ecological assumptions in concordance with the derived classification levels suggest that species characteristics associated with flight performance, nectar uptake, and social behavior are the factors that served to produce the current geographical structure.

The 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule megathrust earthquake of Central Chile, monitored by GPS.

Large earthquakes produce crustal deformation that can be quantified by geodetic measurements, allowing for the determination of the slip distribution on the fault. We used data from Global Positioning System (GPS) networks in Central Chile to infer the static deformation and the kinematics of the 2010 moment magnitude (M(w)) 8.8 Maule megathrust earthquake. From elastic modeling, we found a total rupture length of ~500 kilometers where slip (up to 15 meters) concentrated on two main asperities situated on both sides of the epicenter. We found that rupture reached shallow depths, probably extending up to the trench. Resolvable afterslip occurred in regions of low coseismic slip. The low-frequency hypocenter is relocated 40 kilometers southwest of initial estimates. Rupture propagated bilaterally at about 3.1 kilometers per second, with possible but not fully resolved velocity variations.

Efecto del cambio del paisaje en la estructura de la comunidad de abejas sin aguijón (Hymenoptera: Apidae) en Meta, Colombia

Effect of landscape change on the structure of the sting-less bee community (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Meta, Colombia. Stingless bees represent one of the most diversified components of the natural Apoidea fauna of pollinators in the tropics. They use diverse kinds of substrates and inhabit varied habitats. Some species are typical for some natural either artificial place. The landscape alteration were this group of bees nests, has and important impact on the natural composition of its community structure, fact which is reflected in the nest density. We analyzed the structure composition of the stingless bees’ community in three environments in the Colombian llanos piedmont, an important region that represents the transition between Andean ecosystems and a savannah that is seriously threatened by cattle practices. We made systematic samples in secondary forest, agro-ecosystems and urban areas, recording the presence of 204 nests from 11 genera (24 species). The nest density per landscape was heterogeneous and never higher than 16 nests/Ha. We observed two nesting patterns and an effect of sampling criterion on the measured biodiversity. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (3): 1295-1308. Epub 2008 September 30.

Las abejas sin aguijón son unos de los polinizadores naturales más diversos de la fauna Apoidea en los trópicos. Nidifican en diversos sustratos y distintos ambientes, existiendo algunas especies típicas de lugares naturales o artificiales. La alteración del medio donde nidifican tiene un importante impacto sobre la composición natural de su estructura, hecho que se ve reflejado también en la densidad de nidos. Analizamos la composición de la estructura de la comunidad de abejas sin aguijón en tres paisajes del piedemonte llanero colombiano, una región importante por representar la transición entre ambientes andinos y de sabana (seriamente amenazada por la ganadería intensiva). Realizamos muestreos sistemáticos en bosque secundario, agro-ecosistema y zona urbana; registramos la presencia de 204 nidos de 11 géneros representados por 24 especies. La riqueza de abejas sin aguijón fue similar, aun cuando hubo diferencias significativas en la estructura de la comunidad en los tres paisajes. La densidad de nidos por paisaje fue heterogénea y nunca mayor de 16 nidos/Ha. Observamos dos patrones de nidificación y registramos diferente número de especies en la misma zona utilizando otro criterio de muestreo.

[Effect of landscape change on the structure of the sting-less bee community (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Meta, Colombia]. / Efecto del cambio del paisaje en la estructura de la comunidad de abejas sin aguijón (Hymenoptera: Apidae) en Meta, Colombia.

Stingless bees represent one of the most diversified components of the natural Apoidea fauna of pollinators in the tropics. They use diverse kinds of substrates and inhabit varied habitats. Some species are typical for some natural either artificial place. The landscape alteration were this group of bees nests, has and important impact on the natural composition of its community structure, fact which is reflected in the nest density. We analyzed the structure composition of the stingless bees' community in three environments in the Colombian Ilanos piedmont, an important region that represents the transition between Andean ecosystems and a savannah that is seriously threatened by cattle practices. We made systematic samples in secondary forest, agro-ecosystems and urban areas, recording the presence of 204 nests from 11 genera (24 species). The nest density per landscape was heterogeneous and never higher than 16 nests/Ha. We observed two nesting patterns and an effect of sampling criterion on the measured biodiversity.

[Report of the 3rd International Conference on Envenomations in Africa]. / Troisième Conférence internationale sur les envenimations en Afrique. Brazzaville, 15-17 novembre 2007.

The 3rd International Conference on Envenomations was held in Brazzaville from 15 to 17 November; 2007. At this meeting, updating of epidemiological and treatment information on envenomations in Africa were presented. A round table concluded the conference drawing contributors' main recommendations. One of these recommendation pointed out the need to treat the problem of envenimations at a regional level by creating a group of experts in charge of considering the priorities as well as identifying relevant strategies of management, ensuring the plea and finding the financing.

Variación de la comunidad de abejas de las orquídeas (Hymenoptera: Apidae) en tres ambientes perturbados del piedemonte llanero colombiano

Variation of the orchid bees community (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in three altered habitats of the Colombian "llano" piedmont. Orchid bees subsist in vast tropical forest areas because they maintain close relationships with particular plant species in diverse micro-habitats. Based on the relationships among the environment and biological features (food preference, morphologic and ethologic diversity), it is possible to determine habitat quality using the euglossine array. This work proposes the use of this ecological information, in addition to diversity indices, for the evaluation of environmental quality. Fifteen localities in three landscape types (urban, rural and conserved) were sampled in the eastern llanos foothill (Meta, Colombia), between March and December of 2003 using entomological nets, and Cineol and Metil Salicylate as baits. Of the 26 species known to occur in the area, 17 were registered. Eulaema nigrita was the most frequent, while E. speciosa E. bombiformis, Euglossa magnipes, E. cybelia, E. heterosticta, E. singularis and Exaerete frontalis were mostly found in habitats rated "good to acceptable". The vegetation composition and proximity of forest fragments seem to favor some species in disturbed habitats. Relative diversity of bee body shapes and sizes is proportional to habitat quality. Rev. Biol. Trop. 55 (3-4): 931-941. Epub 2007 December, 28.

Las abejas de las orquídeas subsisten en vastas áreas de bosque tropicales gracias a que mantienen estrechas relaciones con tipos de vegetación particular en diversos micro-hábitats. Con base en este tipo de relaciones con el medio y características biológicas como preferencia por ciertos tipos de néctares y de polen, y diversidad morfológica y etológica de la tribu, es posible evaluar la calidad de un hábitat según la distribución de euglosinos. Este trabajo propone el uso de esta información, además de índices de diversidad para la evaluación de la calidad del medio. Entre marzo y diciembre de 2003 muestreamos tres tipos de paisaje (Urbano, Rural y Conservado) en el piedemonte llanero colombiano, usando redes entomológicas y sustancias aromáticas (Cineol y Metil Salicilato). Para las 15 localidades muestreadas se registraron 17 de las 26 especies conocidas para el área. Eulaema nigrita fue la más frecuente mientras que Euglossa magnipes, E. cybelia, E. heterosticta, E. singularis, Eulaema bombiformis, E. speciosa y Exaerete frontalis correspondieron a ambientes considerados de aceptable a buena calidad. La composición y cercanía de fragmentos de bosque son factores favorables. La diversidad relativa (máxima variación de formas y tamaños dentro de la tribu), sería proporcional a la calidad del medio.

[Variation of the orchid bees community (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in three altered habitats of the Colombian "llano" piedmont]. / Variación de la comunidad de abejas de las orquídeas (Hymenoptera: Apidae) en tres ambientes perturbados del piedemonte llanero colombiano.

Orchid bees subsist in vast tropical forest areas because they maintain close relationships with particular plant species in diverse micro-habitats. Based on the relationships among the environment and biological features (food preference, morphologic and ethologic diversity), it is possible to determine habitat quality using the euglossine array. This work proposes the use of this ecological information, in addition to diversity indices, for the evaluation of environmental quality. Fifteen localities in three landscape types (urban, rural and conserved) were sampled in the eastern llanos foothill (Meta, Colombia), between March and December of 2003 using entomological nets, and Cineol and Metil Salicylate as baits. Of the 26 species known to occur in the area, 17 were registered. Eulaema nigrita was the most frequent, while E. speciosa E. bombiformis, Euglossa magnipes, E. cybelia, E. heterosticta, E. singularis and Exaerete frontalis were mostly found in habitats rated "good to acceptable". The vegetation composition and proximity of forest fragments seem to favor some species in disturbed habitats. Relative diversity of bee body shapes and sizes is proportional to habitat quality.

[Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Colombian children and teenagers]. / Prevalencia del trastorno por déficit de atención-hiperactividad en niños y adolescentes colombianos.

INTRODUCTION: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurobehavioural disorder among schoolchildren. It may persist into adulthood and affect performance in the academic, social, occupational and familial spheres, and increase the use and abuse of alcohol and psychoactive substances and the risk of having an accident. Its prevalence throughout the world varies widely and further knowledge about this situation would be valuable for the development of policies in the sector of education. AIMS: The aim of this research was to determine the prevalence of ADHD and its distribution according to subtypes in schoolchildren from Sabaneta, Antioquia, Colombia, in 2001. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The analysis involved a cross-sectional descriptive study using a representative randomised multistage sample (which was proportional to the size of the groups) of schoolchildren between 4 and 17 years old. Measurement was performed in two stages, first by application of a screening form according to DSM IV criteria, and later a structured interview, Conners' and Intelligence tests. RESULTS: Prevalence was found to be 20.4% and 15.8% if only children with an intelligence quotient of 80 or above were considered. The combined subtype was the most frequent, with 9.6%. In public schools it was 16.2%, private 15.3%, age group from 7-11 years 16.9%, 12-17 years old 14.2%, males 20.9%, females 10.1%, low 14.7%, medium 17.4% and high socioeconomic level 10.7%, with a male to female prevalence ratio of 3.88 to 1. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of ADHD in the school population in a municipality in the Metropolitan Area of Medellin, Colombia, is high. The most frequent subtype was the combined type, which was predominant in males, had repercussions on academic performance and low proportions of pharmacological interventions for the disorder (15%). Programmes must be developed for the detection of this problem and subsequent intervention in the school population.

Orphanin-FQ/nociceptin inhibits kindling epileptogenesis and enhances hippocampal feed-forward inhibition.

The role of Orphanin-FQ/nociceptin in synaptic plasticity was assessed by its potency in modulating kindling epileptogenesis in vivo, and feed-forward inhibition in hippocampal recordings in vitro. In addition, a specific rabbit antiserum against this peptide was obtained and the immunohistochemical distribution of nociceptin was determined in rat brain slices. After the establishment of kindling epilepsy, by daily electrical stimulation of the piriform cortex, the i.c.v. injection of nociceptin, 20 min before the kindling stimulation, was not able to block the generation of the generalized seizures, nor to alter their duration. However, the i.c.v. injection of nociceptin, 20 min before each stimulation along the kindling process, depressed its development in a dose-dependent manner. This effect was specific since the nociceptin antagonist [Phe1psi(CH2-NH)Gly2]NC(1-13)NH2, but not the broad-spectrum opiate antagonist, naloxone, was able to completely block nociceptin actions. The inhibitory role of nociceptin was assessed by in vitro recordings from entorhinal cortex-hippocampal slices. By single pulses applied over the Schaffer collaterals, we found that synaptic transmission was facilitated onto CA1, but using a paired-pulse protocol, we found that nociceptin potentiated feed-forward inhibition. The immunohistochemical data show that nociceptin is expressed in limbic cortical regions, including the piriform cortex and the hippocampus. Our results demonstrate that nociceptin exerts a modulatory role in limbic excitability and suggest that it provides an inhibitory control in the development of epilepsy by possibly inhibiting the spread of excitation through the system, by favoring feed-forward inhibition.

Trauma de la vena cava retrohepática y sus afluentes: uso de un tubo de derivación con doble balón. Tratamiento de 1 caso y revisión del tema / Trauma of the retrohepatic vena cava and its tributaries: use of a double ballon shunt tube. Case treatment and subject review

Las heridas de la vena cava retrohepatica y de sus afluentes representan un verdadero reto al cirujano de trauma, debido principalmente al gran volumen que transportan y a la dificultad especial que ofrecen su acceso y control. En los grandes centros mundiales de trauma estas lesiones tienen una mortalidad que varia entre el 50 y el 100 por ciento. El uso de tecnicas de derivacion cavoatrial mediante la aplicacion de tubos fue introducida en 1968. Infortunadamente, esta metodologia no ha logrado disminuir sino, al parecer, incrementar la mortalidad de estas lesiones, la cual casi siempre ocurre por exanguinacion intraoperatoria. La mortalidad global de 7 diferentes series, que incluyeron a 115 pacientes fue del 80.4 por ciento cuando se uso la derivacion; en cambio, la mortalidad descendio al 48.8 por ciento cuando se hizo reparo directo en 67 casos pertenecientes a otras 5 series. Sobre la base de estas juiciosas observaciones es razonable cuestionar el uso de estas derivaciones (shunts). Es probable que haya abuso de las indicaciones del procedimiento y que este se haga sin tener en cuenta la exigente tecnica quirurgica que el demanda. En el presente trabajo mostramos el tratamiento exitoso de un caso con herida de la vena cava retrohepatica y de las suprahepática izquierda y media, con el uso de un tubo de derivacion cavoatrial de dos balones, diseñado y confeccionado por nosotros. Además, se precisa la secuencia de los procesos tecnicos para su correcta colocacion, y se dan algunas pautas sobre el manejo del sangrado retrohepático.