Effects of Amount and Profile of Amino Acids Supply on Lactation Performance, Mammary Gland Metabolism, and Nitrogen Efficiency in Holstein Dairy Cows.

To evaluate the effects of amount and profile of amino acid (AA) on milk protein yield (MPY), mammary metabolism, and efficiency of nitrogen use (ENU), ten cows were used in 5 × 5 replicated Latin squares and fed a positive control (16.1% crude protein-CP) or two lower CP diets (14.6 and 13.2%) with or without essential AA (EAA) infusion. The EAA solutions provided predicted limiting EAA in each treatment and were continuously infused into the abomasum of the cows. Milk production and MPY were not affected by treatment (mean 35.4 kg/d and 1.03 kg/d, respectively). Efficiency of nitrogen utilization was increased as dietary CP decreased but was not affected by EAA infusion (p < 0.01). Energy-corrected milk production was increased by EAA infusion into 13.2% CP, but not into 14.6% CP diet (p = 0.09), reaching the positive control value. Infusions increased mammary affinity for non-infused EAA (Ile, Phe, Thr, and Trp), allowing the same MPY despite lower arterial concentrations of these AA. Higher arterial concentrations of infused EAA did not increase their mammary uptake and MPY (p = 0.40; p = 0.85). Mammary metabolism did not fully explain changes in N efficiency, suggesting that it might be driven by less extramammary catabolism as AA supply was reduced.

Alterations in skeletal muscle abundance of protein turnover, stress, and antioxidant proteins during the periparturient period in dairy cows fed ethyl-cellulose rumen-protected methionine.

Skeletal muscle turnover helps support the physiological needs of dairy cows during the transition into lactation. We evaluated effects of feeding ethyl-cellulose rumen-protected methionine (RPM) during the periparturient period on abundance of proteins associated with transport AA and glucose, protein turnover, metabolism, and antioxidant pathways in skeletal muscle. Sixty multiparous Holstein cows were used in a block design and assigned to a control or RPM diet from -28 to 60 d in milk. The RPM was fed at a rate of 0.09% or 0.10% of dry matter intake (DMI) during the prepartal and postpartal periods to achieve a target Lys:Met ratio in the metabolizable protein of ∼2.8:1. Muscle biopsies from the hind leg of 10 clinically healthy cows per diet collected at -21, 1, and 21 d relative to calving were used for western blotting of 38 target proteins. Statistical analysis was performed using the PROC MIXED statement of SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc.) with cow as random effect, whereas diet, time, and diet × time were the fixed effects. Diet × time tended to affect prepartum DMI, with RPM cows consuming 15.2 kg/d and controls 14.6 kg/d. However, diet had no effect on postpartum DMI (17.2 and 17.1 ± 0.4 kg/d for control and RPM, respectively). Milk yield during the first 30 d in milk was also not affected by diet (38.1 and 37.5 ± 1.9 kg/d for control and RPM, respectively). Diet or time did not affect the abundance of several AA transporters or the insulin-induced glucose transporter (SLC2A4). Among evaluated proteins, feeding RPM led to lower overall abundance of proteins associated with protein synthesis (phosphorylated EEF2, phosphorylated RPS6KB1), mTOR activation (RRAGA), proteasome degradation (UBA1), cellular stress responses (HSP70, phosphorylated MAPK3, phosphorylated EIF2A, ERK1/2), antioxidant response (GPX3), and de novo synthesis of phospholipids (PEMT). Regardless of diet, there was an increase in the abundance of the active form of the master regulator of protein synthesis phosphorylated MTOR and the growth-factor-induced serine/threonine kinase phosphorylated AKT1 and PIK3C3, whereas the abundance of a negative regulator of translation (phosphorylated EEF2K) decreased over time. Compared with d 1 after calving and regardless of diet, the abundance of proteins associated with endoplasmic reticulum stress (XBP1 spliced), cell growth and survival (phosphorylated MAPK3), inflammation (transcription factor p65), antioxidant responses (KEAP1), and circadian regulation (CLOCK, PER2) of oxidative metabolism was upregulated at d 21 relative to parturition. These responses coupled with the upregulation of transporters for Lys, Arg, and His (SLC7A1) and glutamate/aspartate (SLC1A3) over time were suggestive of dynamic adaptations in cellular functions. Overall, management approaches that could take advantage of this physiological plasticity may help cows make a smoother transition into lactation.

Endometrial DNA methylation signatures during the time of breeding in relation to the pregnancy outcome in postpartum dairy cows fed a control diet or supplemented with rumen-protected methionine.

Post calving metabolic stress reduces the fertility of high producing dairy cows possibly by altering the expression of genes in the maternal environment via epigenetic modifications. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify endometrial DNA methylation marks that can be associated with pregnancy outcomes in postpartum cows at the time of breeding. For this, twelve days post-calving, cows were either offered a control diet or supplemented daily with rumen-protected methionine. Cows showing heat 50-64 days postpartum were artificially inseminated. Endometrial cytobrush samples were collected 4-8 h after artificial insemination and classified based on the pregnancy out comes as those derived from cows that resulted in pregnancy or resulted in no pregnancy. The DNAs isolated from endometrial samples were then subject to reduced representative bisulfite sequencing for DNA methylation analysis. Results showed that in the control diet group, 1,958 differentially methylated CpG sites (DMCGs) were identified between cows that resulted in pregnancy and those that resulted in no pregnancy of which 890 DMCGs were located on chr 27: 6217254-6225600 bp. A total of 537 DMCGs were overlapped with 313 annotated genes that were involved in various pathways including signal transduction, signalling by GPCR, aldosterone synthesis and secretion. Likewise, in methionine supplemented group, 3,430 CpG sites were differentially methylated between the two cow groups of which 18.7% were located on Chr27: 6217254-6225600 bp. A total of 1,781 DMCGS were overlapped with 890 genes which involved in developmental and signalling related pathways including WNT-signalling, focal adhesion and ECM receptor interaction. Interestingly, 149 genes involved in signal transduction, axon guidance and non-integrin membrane-ECM interactions were differentially methylated between the two cow groups irrespective of their feeding regime, while 453 genes involved in axon guidance, notch signalling and collagen formation were differentially methylated between cows that received rumen protected methionine and control diet irrespective of their fertility status. Overall, this study indicated that postpartum cows that could potentially become pregnant could be distinguishable based on their endometrial DNA methylation patterns at the time of breeding.

Alterations in Skeletal Muscle mRNA Abundance in Response to Ethyl-Cellulose Rumen-Protected Methionine during the Periparturient Period in Dairy Cows.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of feeding ethyl cellulose rumen-protected methionine (RPM) on skeletal muscle mRNA abundance during the periparturient period. Sixty multiparous Holstein cows were used in a block design and assigned to either a control or RPM diet. The RPM was supplied from −28 to 60 days in milk (DIM) at a rate of 0.09% (prepartum) or 0.10% (postpartum) of dry matter (DM), ensuring a Lys:Met in the metabolizable protein of ~2.8:1. Muscle biopsies were collected at −21, 1, and 21 DIM. Thirty-five target genes associated with nutrient metabolism and biochemical pathways were measured via RT-qPCR. The mRNA abundance of genes associated with amino acid (AA) transport (SLC7A8, SLC43A2), carnitine transport (SLC22A5), insulin signaling (IRS1), and antioxidant response (NFE2L2) had diet × time effect (p < 0.05) due to greater abundance in RPM versus CON cows, especially at 1 and 21 DIM. Members of the AA transport (SLC7A8, SLC25A29, SCL38A9), fatty acid ß-oxidation (ACADVL), vitamin transport (SLC5A6, SLC19A2), mTOR pathway (AKT1 and mTOR), antioxidant response (KEAP1, CUL3), CDP-Choline pathway and arginine metabolism had overall greater abundance (p < 0.05) in RPM versus CON cows. Overall, data indicate that RPM can alter nutrient metabolism in the skeletal muscle around parturition partly through alterations in mRNA abundance.

Insulin signaling and antioxidant proteins in adipose tissue explants from dairy cows challenged with hydrogen peroxide are altered by supplementation of arginine or arginine plus methionine.

Arginine (Arg) and methionine (Met) can elicit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in animals. Unlike Met, however, it is unknown if the supply of Arg can impact key aspects of adipose tissue (AT) function in dairy cows. Since Met and Arg metabolism are linked through the synthesis of polyamines, it is also possible that they have a complementary effect on aspects of AT function during a stress challenge. In this experiment, subcutaneous AT was harvested from four lactating multiparous Holstein cows (~27.0 kg milk per day, body condition score 3.38 ± 0.23) and used for incubations (4 h) with the following: control medium with an "ideal" profile of essential amino acids (IPAA; CTR; Lys:Met 2.9:1), IPAA plus 100 µM H2O2 (HP), H2O2 plus greater Arg supply (HPARG; Lys:Arg 1:1), or H2O2 plus greater Arg and methionine (Met) supply (HPARGMET; Lys:Met 2.5:1 and Lys:Arg 1:1). Western blotting was used to measure abundance of 18 protein targets associated with insulin and AA signaling, nutrient transport, inflammation, and antioxidant response. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to assess effects on genes associated with Arg metabolism. Among the protein targets measured, although abundance of phosphorylated (p) AKT serine/threonine kinase (P = 0.05) and p-mechanistic target of rapamycin (P = 0.04) were lowest in HP explants, this effect was attenuated in HPARG and especially HPARGMET compared with CTR. Compared with HP, incubation with HPARG led to upregulation of the AA transporter solute carrier family 1 member 3 (L-glutamate transporter; P = 0.03), the reactive oxygen species detoxification-related enzyme glutathione S-transferase mu 1 (GSTM1; P = 0.03), and fatty acid synthase (P = 0.05). Those effects were accompanied by greater abundance of solute carrier family 2 member 4 (insulin-induced glucose transporter) in explants incubated with HPARG and also HPARGMET (P = 0.04). In addition, compared with other treatments, the peak response in abundance of the intracellular energy sensor 5'-prime-AMP-activated protein kinase was detected with HPARGMET (P = 0.003). There was no effect of Arg or Arg plus Met on the mRNA abundance of genes associated with Arg metabolism (ARG1, NOS2, AMD1, SMS, and SRM). Overall, supplementation of Arg alone or with Met partially alleviated the negative effects induced by H2O2. More systematic studies need to be conducted to explore the function of Arg supply with or without Met on AT function.

In nonruminants, oxygen-derived free-radicals such as hydrogen peroxide produced during stressful events impair insulin responsiveness including glucose uptake, protein synthesis, and fatty acid metabolism. Arginine and methionine supply induce anti-inflammatory and antioxidant responses during stressful conditions. We studied the acute effect of arginine supplementation alone or combined with methionine on protein abundance in adipose tissue explants from lactating Holstein cows challenged with hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide reduced protein abundance of key insulin and amino acid signaling proteins. Most pronounced and positive effects were detected with arginine alone, restoring abundance of key target proteins including those involved in glucose, amino acid, and glutathione metabolism. Potential benefits of enhanced post-ruminal arginine supply during stressful periods such as the transition into lactation merit further study.

Branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation Alters the Abundance of Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin and Insulin Signaling Proteins in Subcutaneous Adipose Explants from Lactating Holstein Cows.

The objective of this study was to investigate changes in protein abundance of mTOR and insulin signaling pathway components along with amino acid (AA) transporters in bovine s.c. adipose (SAT) explants in response to increased supply of Leu, Ile, or Val. Explants of SAT from four lactating Holstein cows were incubated with high-glucose serum-free DMEM, to which the 10 essential AAs were added to create the following treatments: ideal mix of essential AA (IPAA; Lys:Met 2.9:1; Lys:Thr 1.8:1; Lys:His 2.38:1; Lys:Val 1.23:1; Lys:Ile 1.45:1; Lys:Leu 0.85:1; Lys:Arg 2.08:1) or IPAA supplemented with Ile, Val, or Leu to achieve a Lys:Ile of 1.29:1 (incIle), Lys:Val 1.12:1 (incVal), or Lys:Leu (incLeu) 0.78:1 for 4 h. Compared with IPAA, incLeu or incIle led to greater activation of protein kinase B (AKT; p-AKT/total AKT) and mTOR (p-mTOR/total mTOR). Total EAA in media averaged 7.8 ± 0.06 mmol/L across treatments. Incubation with incLeu, incIle, or incVal led to greater protein abundance of solute carrier family 38 member 1 (SLC38A1), a Gln transporter, and the BCAA catabolism enzyme branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase kinase (BCKDK) compared with IPAA. Activation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2; p-eEF2/total eEF2) was also greater in response to incLeu, incIle, or incVal. Furthermore, compared with incLeu or incIle, incVal supplementation led to greater abundance of SLC38A1 and BCKDK. BCKDK is a rate-limiting enzyme regulating BCAA catabolism via inactivation and phosphorylation of the BCKD complex. Overall, data suggested that enhanced individual supplementation of BCAA activates mTOR and insulin signaling in SAT. Increased AA transport into tissue and lower BCAA catabolism could be part of the mechanism driving these responses. The potential practical applications for enhancing post-ruminal supply of BCAA via feeding in rumen-protected form support in vivo studies to ascertain the role of these AAs on adipose tissue biology.

Methionine and Arginine Supply Alters Abundance of Amino Acid, Insulin Signaling, and Glutathione Metabolism-Related Proteins in Bovine Subcutaneous Adipose Explants Challenged with N-Acetyl-d-sphingosine.

The objective was to perform a proof-of-principle study to evaluate the effects of methionine (Met) and arginine (Arg) supply on protein abundance of amino acid, insulin signaling, and glutathione metabolism-related proteins in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) explants under ceramide (Ce) challenge. SAT from four lactating Holstein cows was incubated with one of the following media: ideal profile of amino acid as the control (IPAA; Lys:Met 2.9:1, Lys:Arg 2:1), increased Met (incMet; Lys:Met 2.5:1), increased Arg (incArg; Lys:Arg 1:1), or incMet plus incArg (Lys:Met 2.5:1 Lys:Arg 1:1) with or without 100 µM exogenous cell-permeable Ce (N-Acetyl-d-sphingosine). Ceramide stimulation downregulated the overall abundance of phosphorylated (p) protein kinase B (AKT), p-mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), and p-eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2). Without Ce stimulation, increased Met, Arg, or Met + Arg resulted in lower p-mTOR. Compared with control SAT stimulated with Ce, increased Met, Arg, or Met + Arg resulted in greater activation of mTOR (p-mTOR/total mTOR) and AKT (p-AKT/total AKT), with a more pronounced response due to Arg. The greatest protein abundance of glutathione S-transferase Mu 1 (GSTM1) was detected in response to increased Met supply during Ce stimulation. Ceramide stimulation decreased the overall protein abundance of the Na-coupled neutral amino acid transporter SLC38A1 and branched-chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase (BCKDK). However, compared with controls, increased Met or Arg supply attenuated the downregulation of BCKDK induced by Ce. Circulating ceramides might affect amino acid, insulin signaling, and glutathione metabolism in dairy cow adipose tissue. Further in vivo studies are needed to confirm the role of rumen-protected amino acids in regulating bovine adipose function.

Unique adaptations in neonatal hepatic transcriptome, nutrient signaling, and one-carbon metabolism in response to feeding ethyl cellulose rumen-protected methionine during late-gestation in Holstein cows.

BACKGROUND: Methionine (Met) supply during late-pregnancy enhances fetal development in utero and leads to greater rates of growth during the neonatal period. Due to its central role in coordinating nutrient and one-carbon metabolism along with immune responses of the newborn, the liver could be a key target of the programming effects induced by dietary methyl donors such as Met. To address this hypothesis, liver biopsies from 4-day old calves (n = 6/group) born to Holstein cows fed a control or the control plus ethyl-cellulose rumen-protected Met for the last 28 days prepartum were used for DNA methylation, transcriptome, metabolome, proteome, and one-carbon metabolism enzyme activities. RESULTS: Although greater withers and hip height at birth in Met calves indicated better development in utero, there were no differences in plasma systemic physiological indicators. RNA-seq along with bioinformatics and transcription factor regulator analyses revealed broad alterations in 'Glucose metabolism', 'Lipid metabolism, 'Glutathione', and 'Immune System' metabolism due to enhanced maternal Met supply. Greater insulin sensitivity assessed via proteomics, and efficiency of transsulfuration pathway activity suggested beneficial effects on nutrient metabolism and metabolic-related stress. Maternal Met supply contributed to greater phosphatidylcholine synthesis in calf liver, with a role in very low density lipoprotein secretion as a mechanism to balance metabolic fates of fatty acids arising from the diet or adipose-depot lipolysis. Despite a lack of effect on hepatic amino acid (AA) transport, a reduction in metabolism of essential AA within the liver indicated an AA 'sparing effect' induced by maternal Met. CONCLUSIONS: Despite greater global DNA methylation, maternal Met supply resulted in distinct alterations of hepatic transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome profiles after birth. Data underscored an effect on maintenance of calf hepatic Met homeostasis, glutathione, phosphatidylcholine and taurine synthesis along with greater efficiency of nutrient metabolism and immune responses. Transcription regulators such as FOXO1, PPARG, E2F1, and CREB1 appeared central in the coordination of effects induced by maternal Met. Overall, maternal Met supply induced better immunometabolic status of the newborn liver, conferring the calf a physiologic advantage during a period of metabolic stress and suboptimal immunocompetence.

Effect of protein level and methionine supplementation on dairy cows during the transition period.

Cows experience a significant negative protein balance during the first 30 d of lactation. Given the functional effects of AA on health, especially in challenging periods such as calving, higher levels of protein and specific AA in the diet may act to improve health and feed intake. The response of dairy cows to 3 protein supplementation strategies during the transition period and through the first 45 d in milk was evaluated. The final data set had 39 Holstein cows blocked based on parity (primiparous vs. multiparous) and expected calving and randomly assigned within each block to one of 3 dietary treatments: low protein (LP), high protein (HP), or high protein plus rumen-protected methionine (HPM). Treatments were offered from d -18 ± 5 to 45 d relative to parturition. Pre- and postpartum diets were formulated for high metabolizable protein (MP) supply from soybean meal, and HP and HPM provided higher MP balance than LP. Preplanned contrasts were LP versus HP+HPM and HP versus HPM. Significance was declared at P ≤ 0.05 and trends at 0.05

Residual feed intake divergence during the preweaning period is associated with unique hindgut microbiome and metabolome profiles in neonatal Holstein heifer calves.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies underscored that divergence in residual feed intake (RFI) in mature beef and dairy cattle is associated with changes in ruminal microbiome and metabolome profiles which may contribute, at least in part, to better feed efficiency. Because the rumen in neonatal calves during the preweaning period is underdeveloped until close to weaning, they rely on hindgut microbial fermentation to breakdown undigested diet components. This leads to production of key metabolites such as volatile fatty acids (VFA), amino acids, and vitamins that could potentially be absorbed in the hind-gut and help drive growth and development. Whether RFI divergence in neonatal calves is associated with changes in hindgut microbial communities and metabolites is largely unknown. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to determine differences in hindgut microbiome and metabolome in neonatal Holstein heifer calves retrospectively-grouped based on feed efficiency as most-efficient (M-eff) or least-efficient (L-eff) calves using RFI divergence during the preweaning period. METHODS: Twenty-six Holstein heifer calves received 3.8 L of first-milking colostrum from their respective dams within 6 h after birth. Calves were housed in individual outdoor hutches bedded with straw, fed twice daily with a milk replacer, and had ad libitum access to a starter grain mix from birth to weaning at 42 d of age. Calves were classified into M-eff [n = 13; RFI coefficient = - 5.72 ± 0.94 kg DMI (milk replacer + starter grain)/d] and L-eff [n = 13; RFI coefficient = 5.61 ± 0.94 kg DMI (milk replacer + starter grain)/d] based on a linear regression model including the combined starter grain mix and milk replacer DMI, average daily gain (ADG), and metabolic body weight (MBW). A deep sterile rectal swab exposed only to the rectum was collected immediately at birth before colostrum feeding (i.e., d 0), and fecal samples at d 14, 28, and 42 (prior to weaning) for microbiome and untargeted metabolome analyses using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and LC-MS. Microbiome data were analyzed with the QIIME 2 platform and metabolome data with the MetaboAnalyst 4.0 pipeline. RESULTS: No differences (P > 0.05) in body measurements including body weight (BW), body length (BL), hip height (HH), hip width (HW), and wither height (WH) were detected between M-eff and L-eff calves at birth and during preweaning. Although milk replacer intake did not differ between groups, compared with L-eff, M-eff heifers had lower starter intake (P < 0.01) between d 18 to 42 of age, whereas no differences (P > 0.05) for ADG, cumulative BWG, or body measurements were observed between RFI groups during the preweaning period. Microbiome and metabolome profiles through the first 42 d of age indicated greater hindgut capacity for the production of energy-generating substrates (butyrate and propionate) and essential nutrients (vitamins and amino acids) in heifers with greater estimated feed efficiency. CONCLUSION: Despite consuming approximately 54.6% less solid feed (cumulative intake, 10.90 vs. 19.98 ± 1.66 kg) from birth to weaning, the microbiome-metabolome changes in the hindgut of most-efficient heifers might have helped them maintain the same level of growth as the least-efficient heifers.

Supply of methionine and arginine alters phosphorylation of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), circadian clock proteins, and α-s1-casein abundance in bovine mammary epithelial cells.

Methionine (Met) and arginine (Arg) regulate casein protein abundance through alterations in activity of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling pathway. A potential role for the circadian clock network on the regulation of protein synthesis, partly via activity of mTORC1, has been highlighted in non-ruminants. The main objective of the study was to determine in ruminant mammary cells alterations in mRNA, protein abundance and phosphorylation status of mTORC1-related upstream targets, circadian clock proteins, and protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha (AMPK) in relation to α-s1-casein protein (CSN1S1) abundance in response to greater supply of Met and Arg alone or in combination. Primary bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMEC) were incubated for 12 h in a 2 × 2 arrangement of treatments with control media (ideal profile of amino acids, IPAA), or media supplemented with increased Met (incMet), Arg (incArg), or both (incMet + incArg). Data were analyzed testing the main effects of Met and Arg and their interaction. Among 7 amino acid (AA) transporters known to be mTORC1 targets, increasing supply of Arg downregulated SLC1A5, SLC3A2, SLC7A1, and SLC7A5, while increasing supply of Met upregulated SLC7A1. mRNA abundance of the cytosolic Arg sensor (CASTOR1) was lower when supply of Arg and Met alone increased. p-TSC2 (TSC complex subunit 2) was greater when the Arg supply was increased, while the phosphoralation ratio of p-AKT (AKT serine/threonine kinase 1):total (t) AKT and p-AMPK:tAMPK were lower. In spite of this, the ratio of p-mTOR:tmTOR nearly doubled with incArg but such response did not prevent a decrease in CSN1S1 abundance. The abundance of period circadian regulator 1 (PER1) protein nearly doubled with all treatments, but only incMet + incArg led to greater clock circadian regulator (CLOCK) protein abundance. Overall, data suggest that a greater supply of Met and Arg could influence CSN1S1 synthesis of BMEC through changes in the mTORC1, circadian clock, and AMPK pathways. Identifying mechanistic relationships between intracellular energy, total AA supply, and these pathways in the context of milk protein synthesis in ruminants merits further research.

Supply of Methionine During Late-Pregnancy Alters Fecal Microbiota and Metabolome in Neonatal Dairy Calves Without Changes in Daily Feed Intake.

To our knowledge, most studies demonstrating the role of manipulating maternal nutrition on hindgut (i.e., large intestine) microbiota in the offspring have been performed in non-ruminants. Whether this phenomenon exists in cattle is largely unknown. Therefore, the objectives of the current study were to evaluate the impact of maternal post-ruminal supply of methionine during late-pregnancy in dairy cows on fecal microbiota and metabolome in neonatal calves, and their association with body development and growth performance during the preweaning period. To achieve this, heifer calves, i.e., neonatal female offspring, born to Holstein cows receiving either a control (CON) diet (n = 13) or CON plus rumen-protected methionine (MET; Evonik Nutrition & Care GmbH) during the last 28 days of pregnancy were used. Fecal samples from heifers were collected from birth until 6 weeks of age, i.e., the preweaning period. Fecal microbiota was analyzed with QIIME 2 whereas fecal metabolites were measured using an untargeted LC-MS approach. At birth, MET heifers had greater (P ≤ 0.05) BW, HH, and WH. During the preweaning period, no differences between groups were detected for starter intake (P = 0.77). However, MET heifers maintained greater (P ≤ 0.05) BW, HH and tended (P = 0.06) to have greater WH and average daily gain (ADG) (P = 0.10). Fecal microbiota and metabolome profiles through 42 days of age in MET heifers indicated greater capacity for hindgut production of endogenous antibiotics and enhanced hindgut functionality and health. Enhancing maternal post-ruminal supply of methionine during late-gestation in dairy cows has a positive effect on hindgut functionality and health in their offspring through alterations in the fecal microbiota and metabolome without affecting feed intake. Those alterations could limit pathogen colonization of the hindgut while providing essential nutrients to the neonate. Together, such responses contribute to the ability of young calves to achieve better rates of nutrient utilization for growth.

Supplementing rumen-protected methionine to lactating multiparous dairy cows did not improve reproductive performance.

There is evidence that supplementing methionine has positive effects on uterine environment, oocyte quality and embryo development in cattle. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate reproductive traits of cows supplemented with rumen-protected methionine (RPM) during early to mid-lactation in comparison with an untreated control group (CON). An additional focus was on the effect of puerperal diseases on reproductive performance parameters in RPM-supplemented group MET and in CON. A total of 1,709 multiparous Holstein-Friesian cows were enrolled in this field trial conducted on a commercial dairy farm in Slovakia. Cows were allocated at approximately 12 days post-partum (dpp) to either CON or MET, the latter supplemented with 25.0 g-27.2 g RPM per cow per day incorporated into the total mixed ration (TMR) until leaving the study pen at approximately 140 dpp. The amount of RPM was calculated based on individual feed ingredients analysis and adjusted during the study period when TMR changed. Cows were monitored during the post-partum period by vaginal examination (day 5 pp), measuring of beta-hydroxybutyrate in blood (3, 5, and 8 dpp) and by vaginal examination, uterine cytology and measuring of back fat thickness by ultrasound (all at 31 ± 3 dpp). Compared with CON, cows supplemented with RPM did not show better reproduction performance parameters (first service submission rate, days to first service, conception risk, days open 140). Results from binary logistic regression model for the risk of conception showed that metritis had a significant effect, but the supplementation of methionine had not. Results of Cox regression analysis for the odds of conception within 140 dpp revealed only metritis and clinical endometritis as significant factors. In conclusion, supplementation of RPM had no beneficial effect on reproductive performance in this study farm compared with an untreated control group.

Methionine Supply During Late-Gestation Triggers Offspring Sex-Specific Divergent Changes in Metabolic and Epigenetic Signatures in Bovine Placenta.

Background: Nonruminant male and female offspring respond differently to gestational nutrition, with placenta contributing to the underlying mechanisms. However, similar data are lacking in large ruminants. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of methionine supply during late-gestation on metabolism and DNA methylation in placenta from cows carrying male or female calves. Methods: During the last 28 d of pregnancy, cows were individually fed a control diet (CON) or the control diet plus rumen-protected d,l-methionine (MET; 0.9 g/kg dry matter intake). Placentomes collected at term were classified according to cow dietary treatment and offspring sex as follows: Male CON (n = 7), Male MET (n = 7), Female CON (n = 8), and Female MET (n = 8). Calf growth was measured until 9 wk of age. Targeted metabolomics, RT-PCR, global DNA methylation, and activity of selected enzymes in one-carbon metabolism and transsulfuration pathways were performed. Statistics were conducted via ANOVA using MIXED models. Results: At birth, Male MET calves were heavier than Male CON calves (7.6%, P = 0.02), but body mass was similar at 9 wk of age. In contrast, compared with Female CON, Female MET calves had greater body mass at 9 wk of age (6.3%, P = 0.03). Compared with Male CON, placenta from Male MET calves had greater concentrations of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and transsulfuration intermediates (23-100%, P < 0.05), along with greater 5-methyltetrahydrofolatehomocysteine methyltransferase activity (67%, P = 0.03). Compared with Female CON, placenta from Female MET calves had greater concentrations of one-carbon metabolism intermediates (13-52%, P < 0.05). DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) was upregulated (43%, P < 0.01) in placenta from Female MET compared with Female CON calves. Global DNA methylation was lower in placenta from Female MET compared with Female CON calves (45%, P = 0.06). Conclusions: Methionine supply affects placental metabolism, DNA methylation, and body mass of the calf in a sex-specific manner, underscoring its importance as dietary methyl-donor for pregnant cows.

Hepatic Cystathionine ß-Synthase Activity Is Increased by Greater Postruminal Supply of Met during the Periparturient Period in Dairy Cows.

BACKGROUND: Postruminal supply of Met during the periparturient period enhances production efficiency (feed conversion to milk) in dairy cows partly through alleviation of oxidant and inflammatory status. Whether alterations in hepatic 1-carbon metabolism (major contributor of antioxidants) and/or energy metabolism contribute to these beneficial effects is unknown. OBJECTIVES: To investigate alterations in hepatic 1-carbon and energy metabolism and associations with plasma amino acids (AAs) and production efficiency in response to enhanced postruminal supply of Met. METHODS: Holstein cows (n = 30 per group) were fed during the last 28 d of pregnancy a control diet (CON) or the control plus ethylcellulose rumen-protected Met (MET; 0.9 g/kg of dry matter intake). Plasma (n = 15 per group) and liver tissue (n = 10 per group) were collected throughout the periparturient period to evaluate AA profiles, activity of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and 1-carbon metabolism via mRNA abundance, enzyme activity, and targeted metabolomics. RESULTS: Cows in the MET group had greater overall (27%, P = 0.027) plasma Met concentrations, but had similar total plasma AA concentrations. Although mRNA abundance of 1-carbon metabolism enzymes did not differ, hepatic activity of cystathionine ß-synthase (CBS) (51.2 compared with 44.4 mmol/h/mg protein; P = 0.032) and concentration (19%, P = 0.048) of the cellular antioxidant glutathione were greater overall in the MET group. mRNA abundance of aconitase 2 and fumarate hydratase was greater overall (P = 0.049), and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 tended (P = 0.093) to be greater overall in cows fed MET. There was a tendency (P ≤ 0.093) for greater overall hepatic concentrations of malic acid, α-ketoglutaric acid, and isocitric acid in cows fed MET. CONCLUSIONS: Greater activity of CBS in response to enhanced postruminal supply of Met likely contributes to alleviating oxidant status by increasing concentrations of glutathione. Hence, transsulfuration plays an important role in the observed improvements in production efficiency of dairy cows during the periparturient period.

Maternal supply of methionine during late-pregnancy enhances rate of Holstein calf development in utero and postnatal growth to a greater extent than colostrum source.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy and early life are critical periods of plasticity during which the fetus and neonate may be influenced by environmental factors such as nutrition. Maternal methionine (Met) supply in non-ruminants during pregnancy can affect offspring development and growth. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate if increasing Met supply during late-pregnancy affects developmental parameters of the calf at birth and if either maternal Met or colostrum from Met-fed cows alters calf growth. Calves born to Holstein cows individually-fed a basal control [CON; 1.47 Mcal/kg dry matter (DM) and 15.3% crude protein] diet with no added Met or CON plus ethylcellulose rumen-protected Met (MET; Mepron® at 0.09% of diet DM; Evonik Nutrition & Care GmbH, Germany) during the last 28 ± 2 d of pregnancy were used. A total of 39 calves were in CON (n = 22 bulls, 17 heifers) and 42 in MET (n = 20 bulls, 22 heifers). At birth, calves were randomly allocated considering dam treatment and colostrum as follows: 1) calves from CON cows and colostrum from CON cows (n = 21); 2) calves from CON cows and colostrum from MET cows (n = 18); 3) calves from MET cows and colostrum from MET cows (n = 22); and 4) calves from MET cows and colostrum from CON cows (n = 20). All calves were housed, managed, and fed individually during the first 9 wk of life. RESULTS: Despite greater daily DM intake pre-partum in cows fed MET (15.7 vs. 14.4 ± 0.12 kg/d, P < 0.05), colostrum quality and quantity were not affected by maternal diet. At birth, MET calves had greater (P ≤ 0.05) body weight (BW, 44.1 vs. 42.1 ± 0.70 kg), hip height (HH, 81.3 vs. 79.6 ± 0.53 cm) and wither height (WH, 77.8 vs. 75.9 ± 0.47 cm). In contrast, concentrations of His, Lys, and Asn in plasma were lower (P ≤ 0.05) in MET calves. Regardless of colostrum source, the greater BW, HH, and WH in MET calves at birth persisted through 9 wk of age resulting in average responses of + 3.1 kg BW, + 1.9 cm HH, and + 1.8 cm WH compared with CON. Average daily gain during the 9 wk was (P < 0.05) 0.72 ± 0.02 kg/d in MET compared with 0.67 ± 0.02 kg/d in CON calves. Respiratory scores were normal and did not differ (P > 0.05) due to maternal Met supply or colostrum source. However, fecal scores tended to be lower (P ≤ 0.10) in MET calves regardless of colostrum source. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing the maternal supply of MET during late-pregnancy enhanced growth in utero as well as during the pre-weaning and early post-weaning periods. Although the ~ 1 kg/d greater DM intake during the last 2-3 wk prior to parturition could explain a portion of the 2 kg extra body mass of MET calves at birth, other mechanisms potentially encompassing nutrient assimilation efficiency likely played a role. Assessing the exact mechanisms sensitive to supply of Met or total amino acid supply during the latter stages of growth in utero merit further research.

Placentome Nutrient Transporters and Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling Proteins Are Altered by the Methionine Supply during Late Gestation in Dairy Cows and Are Associated with Newborn Birth Weight.

Background: To our knowledge, most research demonstrating a link between maternal nutrition and both fetal growth and offspring development after birth has been performed with nonruminants. Whether such relationships exist in large ruminants is largely unknown.Objective: We aimed to investigate whether increasing the methionine supply during late pregnancy would alter uteroplacental tissue nutrient transporters and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and their relation with newborn body weight.Methods: Multiparous Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block design experiment. During the last 28 d of pregnancy, cows were fed a control diet or the control diet plus ethylcellulose rumen-protected methionine (0.9 g/kg dry matter intake) (Mepron; Evonik Nutrition & Care GmbH) to achieve a 2.8:1 ratio of lysine to methionine in the metabolizable protein reaching the small intestine. We collected placentome samples at parturition and used them to assess mRNA and protein expression and the phosphorylation status of mTOR pathway proteins.Results: Newborn body weight was greater in the methionine group than in the control group (44.1 kg and 41.8 kg, respectively; P ≤ 0.05). Increasing the methionine supply also resulted in greater feed intake (15.8 kg/d and 14.6 kg/d), plasma methionine (11.9 µM and 15.3 µM), and plasma insulin (1.16 µg/L and 0.81 µg/L) in cows during late pregnancy. As a result, mRNA expression of genes involved in neutral amino acid transport [solute carrier (SLC) family members SLC3A2, SLC7A5, SLC38A1, and SLC38A10], glucose transport [SLC2A1, SLC2A3, and SLC2A4], and the mTOR pathway [mechanistic target of rapamycin and ribosomal protein S6 kinase B1] were upregulated (P ≤ 0.07) in methionine-supplemented cows. Among 6 proteins in the mTOR pathway, increasing the methionine supply led to greater (P ≤ 0.09) protein expression of α serine-threonine kinase (AKT), phosphorylated (p)-AKT, p-eukaryotic elongation factor 2, and the p-mTOR:mTOR ratio.Conclusion: Supplemental methionine during late gestation increases feed intake and newborn body weight in dairy cows, and this effect may be mediated by alterations in the uteroplacental transport of nondispensable and dispensable amino acids and glucose at least in part through changes in gene transcription and mTOR signaling.