Ictal fast activity chirps as markers of the epileptogenic zone.

The identification of the epileptogenic zone (EZ) boundaries is crucial for effective focal epilepsy surgery. We verify the value of a neurophysiological biomarker of focal ictogenesis, characterized by a low-voltage fast-activity ictal pattern (chirp) recorded with intracerebral electrodes during invasive presurgical monitoring (stereoelectroencephalography [SEEG]). The frequency content of SEEG signals was retrospectively analyzed with semiautomatic software in 176 consecutive patients with focal epilepsies that either were cryptogenic or presented with discordant anatomoelectroclinical findings. Fast activity seizure patterns with the spectrographic features of chirps were confirmed by computer-assisted analysis in 95.4% of patients who presented with heterogeneous etiologies and diverse lobar location of the EZ. Statistical analysis demonstrated (1) correlation between seizure outcome and concordance of sublobar regions included in the EZ defined by visual analysis and chirp-generating regions, (2) high concordance in contact-by contact analysis of 68 patients with Engel class Ia outcome, and (3) that discordance between chirp location and the visually outlined EZ correlated with worse seizure outcome. Seizure outcome analysis confirms the fast activity chirp pattern is a reproducible biomarker of the EZ in a heterogeneous group of patients undergoing SEEG.

New stimulation procedures for language mapping in stereo-EEG.

OBJECTIVE: Cortical intracerebral electrical stimulation is an important tool for language mapping in the presurgical work-up of patients with drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Language mapping with stereo-electroencephalography (EEG) is usually performed by high-frequency stimulations (HFS: 50 Hz), whereas low-frequency stimulations (LFS: 1 Hz) are usually considered useful for primary cortices mapping. Little is known in literature about "intermediate" frequencies (IFS: 6-15 Hz). Our objective is to explore the clinical usefulness of IFS in language mapping and identify factors, beyond the electrical parameters, that impact the mapping. METHODS: We studied 23 patients submitted to stereo-EEG for presurgical evaluation. Language mapping was performed in the anterior, posterior and/or basal language region of the dominant hemisphere for language. We included all contact positions within these regions stimulated by HFS (50 Hz, 5 s, 1-3 mA) and IFS (6-15 Hz, 15 s, 5 mA). We compared the capability of both stimulation methods to induce a language deficit without afterdischarges (ADs), and we analyzed factors related to clinical examination, region, and stimulation technique by multivariate analysis. RESULTS: A total of 211 stimulations (98 HFS, 113 IFS) in 70 cortical sites within the anterior (84 stimulations), posterior (137), and basal language region (60) were included. IFS induced more frequently language deficits not associated to AD compared to HFS (37.1% vs 25.7%, p = .0043), whereas HFS provoked more diffuse AD (34.7% vs 15.0%, p = .001). Investigating multiple language functions increased the probability of revealing a deficit (odds ratio [OR] 3.16, p = .0016), independently of the stimulation method. SIGNIFICANCE: IFS are valuable for language mapping, thereby improving the probability of inducing a clinical deficit not accompanied by an AD. The completeness of the clinical examination independently affects the sensitivity of the mapping. IFS are a new tool with potential usefulness for the cortical mapping of other associative cortical regions.

Educational needs and career development of young epileptologists in Italy.

OBJECTIVE: The Education and Career Task Force of the Young Epilepsy Section-Italy focuses on educational and career development needs of young Italian epileptologists. Two surveys were developed (pre- and post COVID-19 pandemic) in order to identify the needs of members of the Lega Italiana Contro l'Epilessia under 40 years of age. METHODS: The first was distributed during the 42nd National Congress (Rome, June 5-7, 2019); the second during the 45th National Congress (Padova, June 8-10, 2022) and subsequently by e-mail until July 9, 2022. Data from the 2019 survey were analyzed descriptively. Data from the 2022 survey were further analyzed with Pearson's chi-square test to establish if gender, field of clinical practice, and professional role were associated with different needs. RESULTS: Sixty surveys were completed in 2019 and 69 in 2022. Attendance to courses and congresses as the preferred way to keep medical knowledge updated reduced between 2019 and 2022. The reason was different between trainees (mostly elevated costs) and early-career consultants (mostly organizational issues) (p = 0.005). The main needs for improvement also diverged: trainees indicated differential diagnosis and diagnostic approach to the first seizure while consultants indicated diagnostic approach to genetic epilepsies (p = 0.004); in the genetic field, priority needs were selection of genetic investigations for trainees versus genotype-phenotype correlations for consultants (p = 0.022). The field of practice (pediatric vs. adult) also impacted on the main needs for improvement that is, acquisition of expertise in neuroradiology and drug therapy for pediatric versus genetics for adult neurology trainees or consultants (p = 0.018); in the clinical area, differential diagnosis and approach to the first seizure versus status epilepticus (p = 0.027); in the genetic field, precision medicine versus genotype-phenotype correlations (p = 0.034). No differences were found based on gender. SIGNIFICANCE: The surveys identified different needs based on professional role and discipline. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: The Education and Career Task Force of the Young Epilepsy Section-Italy (YES-I) launched two surveys among young Italian epileptologists. Our research shows that the educational and professional needs of young Italian epileptologists vary based on their job role and field of practice, but not on gender. Their preference for on-site congresses and courses reduced after the pandemic, and the main reason is linked to financial constraints for trainees and to organizational issues for consultants. The main expectation toward YES-I is to receive support for education and career development. Thus, we collected useful suggestions on how to organize our future YES-I activities.

Ictal semiology of gelastic seizures.

Gelastic seizures are rare epileptic manifestations characterized by laughter or a smile. The main etiology is represented by hypothalamic hamartoma, but also focal localization of the epileptogenic zone is described. We reviewed a group of patients with gelastic seizures to describe the semiology and to establish any difference related to diverse epilepsy etiologies. Thirty-five seizures from 16 patients (6 females) were reviewed. The study confirms that hypothalamic hamartoma is the more frequent etiology associated with gelastic seizures. Laughter represented the majority of gelastic ictal signs, while the ictal smile was less frequent. In 87.5% of patients, the manifestation of laughter or smile was the only ictal phenomenon, or the first and the most important clinical sign. Interestingly, it has been observed that patients with a lesion localized in the hypothalamic region had more frequently laughter with emotional involvement and that laughter was the only manifestation of the seizure. On the contrary, patients with lesions localized outside the hypothalamic region had more often seizures with laugh without emotional involvement, resembling a more mechanical action, and associated with other semeiological signs. It, therefore, seems possible to assume that the emotional involvement and the expression of mirth during the seizure, especially in children, are more frequently associated with hypothalamic hamartoma. On the contrary, when the semiology includes less conveyed emotion similar to a mechanical action and other symptoms, an extra hypothalamic localization should be considered.

Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale to Evaluate the Functional Impairment of Patients With Subcortical Band Heterotopia: A Multicentric Cross-sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Subcortical band heterotopia (SBH) is a rare malformation of the cortical development characterized by a heterotopic band of gray matter between cortex and ventricles. The clinical presentation typically includes intellectual disability and epilepsy. PURPOSE: To evaluate if the Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale-pediatric version (EGOS-ped) is a feasible tool for evaluating the functional disability of patients with (SBH). METHOD: Cross-sectional multicenter study of a cohort of 49 patients with SBH (female n = 30, 61%), recruited from 23 Italian centers. RESULTS: Thirty-nine of 49 (80%) cases showed high functional disability at EGOS-ped assessment. In the poor result subgroup (EGOS-ped >3) motor deficit, language impairment, and lower intelligence quotient were more frequent (P < 0.001, P = 0.02, and P = 0.01, respectively); the age at epilepsy onset was remarkably lower (P < 0.001); and the prevalence of epileptic encephalopathy (West syndrome or Lennox-Gastaut-like encephalopathy) was higher (P = 0.04). The thickness and the extension of the heterotopic band were associated with EGOS-ped score (P < 0.01 and P = 0.02). Pachygyria was found exclusively among patients with poor outcome (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The EGOS-ped proved to be a reliable tool for stratifying the functional disability of patients with SBH. According to this score, patients could be dichotomized: group 1 (80%) is characterized by a poor overall functionality with early epilepsy onset, thick heterotopic band, and pachygyria, whereas group 2 (20%) is characterized by a good overall functionality with later epilepsy onset and thinner heterotopic band.

70 Years of Human Cingulate Cortex Stimulation. Functions and Dysfunctions Through the Lens of Electrical Stimulation.

SUMMARY: In this review, we retrace the results of 70 years of human cingulate cortex (CC) intracerebral electrical stimulation and discuss its contribution to our understanding of the anatomofunctional and clinical aspects of this wide cortical region. The review is divided into three main sections. In the first section, we report the results obtained by the stimulation of the anterior, middle, and posterior CC, in 30 studies conducted on approximately 1,000 patients from the 1950s to the present day. These studies show that specific manifestations can be reliably associated with specific cingulate subfields, with autonomic, interoceptive, and emotional manifestations clustered in the anterior cingulate, goal-oriented motor behaviors elicited from the anterior midcingulate and a variety of sensory symptoms characterizing the posterior cingulate regions. In the second section, we compare the effect of CC intracerebral electrical stimulation with signs and manifestations characterizing cingulate epilepsy, showing that the stimulation mapping of CC subfields provides precious information for understanding cingulate epileptic manifestations. The last section tackles the issue of the discrepancy emerging when comparing the results of clinical (electrical stimulation, epilepsy) studies-revealing the quintessential affective and motor nature of the CC-with that reported by neuroimaging studies-which focus on high-level cognitive functions. Particular attention will be paid to the hypothesis that CC hosts a "Pain Matrix" specifically involved in pain perception, which we will discuss in the light of the fact that the stimulation of CC (as well as cingulate epileptic seizures) does not induce nociceptive effects.

Intermediate stimulation frequencies for language mapping using Stereo-EEG.

OBJECTIVE: Identification of eloquent cortices is a prerequisite for the surgical plan but may be challenging, in particular for language areas (LAs), considering the complexity of language function and organization. Electrical intracerebral stimulations (ES) during Stereo-electroencephalography are an essential tool in the localization of LAs and high frequency ES (HFS, 50 Hz) are current gold standard. Low frequencies (1 Hz) are not effective. We aim to investigate different ES frequencies for establishing their utility in localizing LAs. METHODS: We implemented an observational and prospective study evaluating frequencies lower than 50 and higher than 1 Hz; indicated as "intermediate" frequencies (IFS) performed at 6, 9 and 12 Hz and lasting 15 seconds. We included ten patients and carried out a standardized protocol comparing IFS to HFS. RESULTS: Eighty-six ES were carried out in LAs, positive for a language interference in 61.6% without noteworthy difference between IFS and HFS. Among these, 53.3% IFS vs 21.7% HFS yielded no after-discharge. CONCLUSIONS: IFS were similarly effective as HFS, with lower incidence of ADs. Their longer duration facilitated more accurate clinical testing. SIGNIFICANCE: Our results are promising, suggesting that IFS can be useful in the study of LAs.

Is the anatomical lesion always guilty?: A case report.

During a presurgical workup, when discordant structural and electroclinical localization is identified, further evaluation with invasive EEG is often necessary. We report a 44-year-old right-handed woman without significant risk factors for epilepsy who presented at 11 years of age with focal seizures manifest as jerking of the left side of her mouth and arm with frequent evolution to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures during sleep with a weekly frequency. During video-EEG monitoring, we observed interictal left fronto-central sharp waves and some independent sharp waves in the right fronto-central region. Habitual seizures were recorded and during the post-ictal state, the patient had left arm weakness for a few minutes. The ictal discharge on EEG was characterized by a bilateral fronto-central rhythmic slow activity more prevalent over the right hemisphere. MRI of the brain revealed a left precentral structural lesion. Considering the discordant structural and electroclinical information, we performed bilateral fronto-central stereo-EEG implantation and demonstrated clear right fronto-central seizure onset. Stereo-EEG-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation was performed in the right fronto-central leads with subsequent seizure freedom for 9 months. The patient then underwent surgery (right fronto-central cortectomy), and histology revealed focal cortical dysplasia type Ia. The post-surgical outcome was Engel Ia. This case underscores the presence of a structural lesion is not sufficient to define the epileptogenic zone if not supported by clinical and EEG evidence. In such cases, an invasive investigation is typically required.

Early epilepsy surgery for non drug-resistant patients.

The aim of epilepsy treatment is to achieve seizure freedom. Surgery is often still considered a late option when pharmacological treatments have failed and epilepsy has become drug-resistant. We analyse the clinical features and surgical outcome in patients who underwent surgery without experiencing drug-resistance comparing with those observed in patients who became drug-resistant. Two-hundred and fifty patients with symptomatic focal epilepsy (12.1% of patients who underwent surgery at the "Claudio Munari" Epilepsy Surgery Center) were selected on the basis of initial period of seizure freedom and followed-up for at least 12 months. Patients were divided into two groups: those who underwent surgery during the initial period of seizure freedom (n = 74), and those who underwent surgery after an initial seizure-free period followed by drug-resistance (n = 176). Outcomes were significantly better in non-drug-resistant patients (p < 0.001), all of whom had Engel class Ia or Ic. In the drug-resistant group, 136 patients (77.3%) had class Ia or Ic. The median post-operative follow-up was respectively 75.0 and 84.0 months. Epilepsy surgery is a successful treatment, especially for non-drug-resistant patients with focal epilepsy with structural etiology. The timing of surgery affects the outcomes, and "early" surgery should be preferred to prevent likely drug-resistance and to improve prognosis.

Surgery for tuberous sclerosis complex-related epilepsy: Risk factors for an unfavorable seizure outcome.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to identify risk factors of postoperative seizure outcome in a consecutive cohort of patients operated on for TSC-related focal epilepsy, by evaluating several presurgical and surgical variables, including also MRI-visible brain abnormalities other than cortical tubers. METHODS: This retrospective study included 51 patients surgically treated for drug-resistant focal epilepsy with a histological diagnosis of cortical tuber and followed for at least 12 months postoperatively. We investigated the association between several potentially explanatory variables and seizure outcome by univariate and multivariate analysis in the whole cohort and in the subgroups of patients with single and multiple tubers, respectively. RESULTS: The median postoperative follow-up was 115 months (IQR 63-168) and 54.9% of patients were in Engel's class I at final control. In the whole cohort, variables independently associated with an unfavorable seizure outcome (Engel's classes II-IV) were: preoperative non-focal interictal EEG (RR 5, CI 2.46-6.39), presence of sub-ependymal nodules (SEN) (RR 3.53, CI 1.71-4.56) and seizure onset before the first year of age (RR 3.56, CI 0.91-6.89). Non-focal interictal EEG was independently associated with an unfavorable outcome also in the subgroup of patients with multiple tubers (RR 4.34, CI 2.23-5.37), while the presence of SEN (p=0.0221) and of extra-central nervous system lesions (p= 0.0152) predicted an unfavorable seizure outcome in patients with a single tuber. CONCLUSION: Surgery represents an effective option for seizure control in patients with TSC-related epilepsy. The identification of preoperative risk factors for seizure outcome could be helpful for optimizing patients' selection for surgery and pre-surgical counseling.

Association Between Semiology and Anatomo-functional Localization in Patients With Cingulate Epilepsy: A Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cingulate epilepsy (CE) is a rare type of focal epilepsy that is challenging to diagnose because of the polymorphic semiology of the seizures, mimicking other types of epilepsy, and the limited utility of scalp EEG. METHODS: We selected consecutive patients with drug-resistant CE who were seizure-free after surgery, with seizure onset zone (SOZ) confirmed in the cingulate cortex (CC) by histology or stereo EEG. We analyzed subjective and objective ictal manifestations using video recordings and correlated semiology with anatomical CC subregion (anterior, anterior middle, posterior middle, and posterior) localization of SOZ. RESULTS: We analyzed 122 seizures in 57 patients. Seizures were globally characterized by complex behaviors, typically natural seeming and often accompanied by emotional components. All objective ictal variables considered (pronation of the body or arising from a lying/sitting position, tonic/dystonic posturing, hand movements, asymmetry, vocalizations, fluidity and repetitiveness of motor manifestations, awareness, and emotional and autonomic components) were differently distributed among CC subregions (p < 0.05). Along the rostro-caudal axis, fluidity and repetitiveness of movement, vocalizations, body pronation, and emotional components decreased anterior-posteriorly, whereas tonic/dystonic postures, signs of lateralization, and awareness increased. Vestibular and asymmetric somatosensory, somatosensory, and epigastric and enteroceptive/autonomic symptoms were distributed differently among CC subregions (p < 0.05). Along the rostro-caudal axis, vestibular, somatosensory, and somatosensory asymmetric symptoms increased anterior-posteriorly. DISCUSSION: CE is characterized by a spectrum of semiologic manifestations with a topographic distribution. CE semiology could indicate which cingulate sector is primarily involved.

Intracerebral electrical stimulations of the temporal lobe: A stereoelectroencephalography study.

The functional anatomy of the anteromesial portion of the temporal lobe and its involvement in epilepsy can be explored by means of intracerebral electrical stimulations. Here, we aimed to expand the knowledge of its physiological and pathophysiological symptoms by conducting the first large-sample systematic analysis of 1529 electrical stimulations of this anatomical region. We retrospectively analysed all clinical manifestations induced by intracerebral electrical stimulations in 173 patients with drug-resistant focal epilepsy with at least one electrode implanted in this area. We found that high-frequency stimulations were more likely to evoke electroclinical manifestations (p < .0001) and also provoked 'false positive' seizures. Multimodal symptoms were associated with EEG electrical modification (after discharge) (p < .0001). Visual symptoms were not associated with after discharge (p = .0002) and were mainly evoked by stimulation of the hippocampus (p = .009) and of the parahippocampal gyrus (p = .0212). 'False positive seizures' can be evoked by stimulation of the hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus and amygdala, likely due to their intrinsic low epileptogenic threshold. Visual symptoms evoked in the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus, without EEG changes, are physiological symptoms and suggest involvement of these areas in the visual ventral stream. Our findings provide meaningful guidance in the interpretation of intracranial EEG studies of the temporal lobe.

Temporal lobe epilepsy: A never-ending story.

INTRODUCTION: Semiology and anatomo-electroclinical correlations remain invaluable for maintaining the level of excellence in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) surgery, in parallel to the constantly evolving technical progress. The aim of this study was to address semiological frequent and not so frequent signs, rarities and red flags in a long follow-up surgical series of patients suffering from TLE. METHODS: Patients operated within the boundaries of the TL at our center, with presurgical video-EEG recorded seizures and seizure free after a postoperative follow-up of at least 24 months were included. Ictal semiology was systematically described and new red flags were explored by comparing with a second group of patients with the same inclusion criteria but whose outcome had been unfavorable (Engel II-IV). RESULTS: Sixty-two patients were included, 46 seizure free and 16 with outcome Engel II-IV. Most seizure-free patients had a classical semiological presentation including aura (69.6%, abdominal the most frequent), followed by loss of responsiveness (90.2%) oral automatisms (90.7%), ipsilateral gestural automatisms (53.5%), contralateral upper limb dystonia (37.5%) or immobility (39.1%), and early ipsilateral non-versive head orientation (33.3%). More infrequent presentations were also present in the group of seizure-free patients: ictal language disturbance (13%), maintenance of responsiveness during seizures (9.8%), and contralateral rhythmic non manipulative automatism (6.9%). The presence of an isolated viscerosensory and/or psychic aura was significantly more frequent in the seizure-free group (p = 0.017), as well as oroalimentary automatisms (p = 0.005). Two signs were only present in the group with outcome Engel II-IV, constituting possible red flags (0.06 < p < 0.07): inferior limbs stepping-like automatisms and postictal dysarthria. CONCLUSION: An adequate clinical exam during seizures and a careful analysis of video recordings allow to recognize infrequent but well-characterized ictal signs that are part of the range of semiology in TLE, together with the most frequent and classical ictal presentations. Special attention to the localization hypothesis must be paid in the absence of oroalimentary automatisms or when the signs classified as possible red flags emerge.

Forecasting Seizure Freedom After Epilepsy Surgery Assessing Concordance Between Noninvasive and StereoEEG Findings.

BACKGROUND: Accurate localization of the probable Epileptogenic Zone (EZ) from presurgical studies is crucial for achieving good prognosis in epilepsy surgery. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the degree of concordance at a sublobar localization derived from noninvasive studies (video electroencephalography, EEG; magnetic resonance imaging, MRI; 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography FDG-PET, FDG-PET) and EZ estimated by stereoEEG, in forecasting seizure recurrence in a long-term cohort of patients with focal drug-resistant epilepsy. METHODS: We selected patients with a full presurgical evaluation and with postsurgical outcome at least 1 yr after surgery. Multivariate Cox regression analysis for seizure freedom (Engel Ia) was performed. RESULTS: A total of 74 patients were included, 62.2% were in Engel class Ia with a mean follow-up of 2.8 + 2.4 yr after surgery. In the multivariate analysis for Engel Ia vs >Ib, complete resection of the EZ found in stereoEEG (hazard ratio, HR: 0.24, 95%CI: 0.09-0.63, P = .004) and full concordance between FDG-PET and stereoEEG (HR: 0.11, 95%CI: 0.02-0.65, P = .015) portended a more favorable outcome. Most of our results were maintained when analyzing subgroups of patients. CONCLUSION: The degree of concordance between noninvasive studies and stereoEEG may help to forecast the likelihood of cure before performing resective surgery, particularly using a sublobar classification and comparing the affected areas in the FDG-PET with EZ identified with stereoEEG.

Human stereoEEG recordings reveal network dynamics of decision-making in a rule-switching task.

The processing steps that lead up to a decision, i.e., the transformation of sensory evidence into motor output, are not fully understood. Here, we combine stereoEEG recordings from the human cortex, with single-lead and time-resolved decoding, using a wide range of temporal frequencies, to characterize decision processing during a rule-switching task. Our data reveal the contribution of rostral inferior parietal lobule (IPL) regions, in particular PFt, and the parietal opercular regions in decision processing and demonstrate that the network representing the decision is common to both task rules. We reconstruct the sequence in which regions engage in decision processing on single trials, thereby providing a detailed picture of the network dynamics involved in decision-making. The reconstructed timeline suggests that the supramarginal gyrus in IPL links decision regions in prefrontal cortex with premotor regions, where the motor plan for the response is elaborated.

High gamma response tracks different syntactic structures in homophonous phrases.

Syntax is a species-specific component of human language combining a finite set of words in a potentially infinite number of sentences. Since words are by definition expressed by sound, factoring out syntactic information is normally impossible. Here, we circumvented this problem in a novel way by designing phrases with exactly the same acoustic content but different syntactic structures depending on the other words they occur with. In particular, we used phrases merging an article with a noun yielding a Noun Phrase (NP) or a clitic with a verb yielding a Verb Phrase (VP). We performed stereo-electroencephalographic (SEEG) recordings in epileptic patients. We measured a different electrophysiological correlates of verb phrases vs. noun phrases in multiple cortical areas in both hemispheres, including language areas and their homologous in the non-dominant hemisphere. The high gamma band activity (150-300 Hz frequency), which plays a crucial role in inter-regional cortical communications, showed a significant difference during the presentation of the homophonous phrases, depending on whether the phrase was a verb phrase or a noun phrase. Our findings contribute to the ultimate goal of a complete neural decoding of linguistic structures from the brain.

Mirroring other's laughter. Cingulate, opercular and temporal contributions to laughter expression and observation.

Simulation theories predict that the observation of other's laughter modulates activity in the same centers controlling its production. Investigating this issue is particularly challenging, given the technical difficulties of studying laughter production. Previous observations from surgical patients reported laughter production following the electrical stimulation (ES) of the pregenual anterior cingulate (pACC), the frontal operculum (FO) and the temporal pole (TP), deemed to control emotional, communicative and cognitive aspects of laughter, respectively. Here we investigated which region is recruited during laughter observation and production, by adopting a twofold strategy which combines ES and intracranial recording in the same patients. We identified nine sites equally distributed in the pACC, FO and TP, where ES elicited laughter. Subsequently, we presented the patients with visual stimuli depicting dynamic (video) and static (pictures) expressions of laughter, along with emotional and neutral controls, while intracranially recording high-frequency gamma activity (50-150 Hz) from the same sites. pACC sites showed a selective activation during laughter observation, but only if laughter is presented in a dynamical fashion. FO and TP failed to respond during both dynamic and static expressions. We conclude that pACC host a mirror mechanism directly mapping other's laughter onto the neural substrate responsible for the production of emotional laughter.

Action execution and action observation elicit mirror responses with the same temporal profile in human SII.

The properties of the secondary somatosensory area (SII) have been described by many studies in monkeys and humans. Recent studies on monkeys, however, showed that beyond somatosensory stimuli, SII responds to a wider number of stimuli, a finding requiring a revision that human SII is purely sensorimotor. By recording cortical activity with stereotactic electroencephalography (stereo-EEG), we examined the properties of SI and SII in response to a motor task requiring reaching, grasping and manipulation, as well as the observation of the same actions. Furthermore, we functionally characterized this area with a set of clinical tests, including tactile, acoustical, and visual stimuli. The results showed that only SII activates both during execution and observation with a common temporal profile, whereas SI response were limited to execution. Together with their peculiar response to tactile stimuli, we conclude that the role of SII is pivotal also in the observation of actions involving haptic control.