Receptor binding assay for the detection of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins: comparison to the mouse bioassay and applicability under regulatory use.

The receptor-binding assay (RBA) method for the detection of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins was evaluated for its overall performance in comparison with the mouse bioassay (MBA). An initial study to evaluate the effects of filtering shellfish extracts prior to running the RBA indicated no significant difference between filtered and unfiltered extracts on the determined saxitoxin (STX) concentrations. Next, we tested the RBA assay on 295 naturally contaminated mussel tissue samples, ranging in concentrations from 320 µg STX equiv. kg-1 to 13,000 µg STX equiv. kg-1 by MBA. An overall trend was observed with the RBA giving higher results (256 µg STX equiv. kg-1 on average) than the MBA; however, at low concentrations (< 500 µg STX equiv. kg-1) the RBA results were marginally lower. A third study was conducted using spiked mussel tissue analysed by three independent laboratories, two of which performed the RBA and one the MBA. This multi-laboratory study again showed the RBA to give higher results than the MBA; however, it also revealed that STX determination was accurate by the RBA, unlike the MBA. To optimise the assay for efficient usage under regulatory practice, three suggestions have been made: the use of an initial screening plate to separate those samples that exceed the alert level; use of rapid PSP test kits in the field and in the laboratory for screening negative samples and for early detection of toxicity; and use of an alternate commercially available porcine membrane in place of the laboratory-prepared rat membrane homogenate. The large number of samples analysed and the diversity of the tests conducted in this study further support the RBA as an affordable rapid method for STX detection that is also free of the routine sacrifice of live animals.

Evaluation of variability and quality control procedures for a receptor-binding assay for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins.

The receptor-binding assay (RBA) method for determining saxatoxin (STX) and its numerous analogues, which cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans, was evaluated in a single laboratory study. Each step of the assay preparation procedure including the performance of the multi-detector TopCount® instrument was evaluated for its contribution to method variability. The overall inherent RBA variability was determined to be 17%. Variability within the 12 detectors was observed; however, there was no reproducible pattern in detector performance. This observed variability among detectors could be attributed to other factors, such as pipetting errors. In an attempt to reduce the number of plates rejected due to excessive variability in the method's quality control parameters, a statistical approach was evaluated using either Grubbs' test or the Student's t-test for rejecting outliers in the measurement of triplicate wells. This approach improved the ratio of accepted versus rejected plates, saving cost and time for rerunning the assay. However, the potential reduction in accuracy and the lack of improvement in precision suggests caution when using this approach. The current study has recommended an alternate quality control procedure for accepting or rejecting plates in place of the criteria currently used in the published assay, or the alternative of outlier testing. The recommended procedure involves the development of control charts to monitor the critical parameters identified in the published method (QC sample, EC50, slope of calibration curve), with the addition of a fourth critical parameter which is the top value (100% binding) of the calibration curve.

Electrolyte-induced ionization suppression and microcystin toxins: ammonium formate suppresses sodium replacement ions and enhances protiated and ammoniated ions for improved specificity in quantitative LC-MS-MS.

This study examines the effects of electrolytes on microcystin (MC) electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry and quantitative LC-MS-MS. Sodium replacement ions (SRI) are prominent in MC ESI spectra in protic solvents such as HPLC grade methanol. In a methanol-water-0.006% acetic acid (v/v) gradient, envelopes with up to 11 SRI were apparent in both the +1 and +2 charge states with structures [M + Na(x) - (x-1)H](+) and [M + Na(x) - (x-2)H](+2). The m/z 135 product ion, [Ø-CH(2)-CH=O-CH(3)](+), widely used in tandem LC-MS-MS determination of MC, is a low collision energy fragment of many doubly charged MC precursor ions (e.g., [M+Na+H](+2), [M+Na+NH(4)](+2), M+Na+H+CH(3)OH](+2), [M+2H](+2)). These phenomena impair congener-specific LC-MS-MS detection of MC and degrade quantitative accuracy and precision. Pulse addition experiments established that ammonium formate (AF) strongly suppresses SRI in both +1 and +2 charge states and enhances MH(+) and MNH(4)(+) adducts in neutral MC. Addition of the buffer either post-column or by incorporation in the mobile phase increases specificity for all of the MC which were determined as the MNH(4)(+) > MH(+) and MH(+) > [MH - 134](+) transitions for neutral MC (MCLA, MCLF, MCLW) and [M+2H](+2) > 135(+) and [M+2H](+2) > [M+2H - 135](+) transitions for arginine-containing MC (MCLR, MCYR, MCRR). These findings shed light on mechanisms of electrolyte-induced ionization suppression, and demonstrate beneficial use of a buffer electrolyte for improved specificity and analytical ruggedness in quantitative LC-MS-MS.

An improved liquid scintillation counting method for the determination of gross alpha activity in groundwater wells.

A liquid scintillation counting (LSC) method having several advantages over the gas proportional counting (GPC) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method 900.0 for the detection of gross alpha activity in drinking water was evaluated in this study. The improved method described here involves the use of nitromethane as the quench agent for establishing counting efficiencies and spillover factors, and it minimizes sample preparation. It has the advantage of achieving the regulatory detection limit of 111 mBq L(-1) with short count times (100 min) and small sample aliquot sizes. A thorough method validation study was performed by testing field samples ranging in total dissolved solids (TDS) from 0.3 mg L(-1) to 1,000 mg L(-1) and spiking each matrix from 194 mBq L(-1) to 11.6 Bq L(-1). Comparable method precision and accuracy was observed on the two types of LSC instruments tested, Perkin Elmer Quantulus 1220 and Packard 2550, with the former giving better performance. Data presented demonstrate that this efficient and high throughput LSC method is suitable for groundwater samples in excess of 1,000 mg L(-1) of TDS in contrast with the 500 mg L(-1) limit by the routine GPC method. Groundwater wells across the state of California were sampled, analyzed for gross alpha activity using the EPA- approved method and the improved LSC method, and the results were compared.

Identification of unknowns in atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry using a mass to structure search engine.

This study evaluates a new model for identifying unknown compounds in atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry based on a mass-to-structure (MTS) paradigm. In this method, rudimentary ESI spectrum interpretation is required to recognize key spectral features such as MH (+), MNa (+), and MNH 4 (+), which lead to the unknown's monoisotopic mass. The unknown's mass is associated directly with known organic compounds using an Access 2003 database containing records of 19,438 substances assembled from common sources such as the Merck Index, pesticide and pharmaceutical compilations, and chemical catalogues. A user-defined mass tolerance (+/-0.001-0.5 Da) is set according to the instrument mass accuracyunit mass resolution data require a wide mass tolerance ( approximately 0.5 Da) while tolerances for accurate mass data can be as narrow as +/-0.001 Da. Candidate structures retrieved with the MTS Search Engine appear in a report window providing formulas, mass error, and Internet links. This paper provides examples of structure elucidation with 15 organic compounds based on ESI mass spectra from both unit mass resolution (e.g., quadrupole ion trap and triple-stage quadrupole) and accurate mass instruments (e.g., TOF and Q-TOF). Orthogonal information (e.g., isotope ratios and fragmentation data) is complementary and useful for ranking candidates and confirming assignments. The MTS Search Engine identifies unknowns quickly and efficiently, and supplements existing interpretation schemes for unknown identification.

Occurrence and distribution of 210Pb and 210Po in selected California groundwater wells.

Groundwater wells from across the State of California were sampled and analyzed for Pb and Po. The separation method involved Fe(OH)3 precipitation from a 5-L groundwater sample followed by electrodeposition of Po on a nickel disk. The resulting solution was passed through an ion-exchange resin column for the isolation of Pb. De-ionized water spiked at a concentration range from 4.92 mBq L(-1) to 755 mBq L(-1) with these radionuclide standards showed excellent accuracy and precision of the method. In the groundwater wells, overall activity of Pb ranged from 3.7 mBq L(-1) to 1,481 mBq L(-1) and the Po activity ranged from 0.25 mBq L(-1) to 555 mBq L(-1). Of the select wells tested, 27% for Pb and 19% for Po were above the proposed maximum contamination limits for these radionuclides, which are set at 37 mBq L(-1) and 26 mBq L(-1), respectively. From a public health perspective this is a concern, since the drinking water screening levels for gross alpha is at 555 mBq L(-1) and gross beta is at 1,850 mBq L(-1). At such high screening levels Pb and Po will not be captured, and this situation was found in several of the wells studied. The occurrence of Pb and Po are not correlated within the sources, however; the polonium concentrations were always lower than the lead concentrations. Activities of Pb measured from wells two years apart clearly demonstrated the continuous flux of groundwater within aquifers.

Occurrence of 224Ra, 226Ra, 228Ra, gross alpha, and uranium in California groundwater.

One hundred and twelve groundwater wells sampled from all the major aquifers in California were analyzed for 224Ra, 226Ra, 228Ra, gross alpha, and uranium. The results showed that radium is found in relatively low concentration, 1.56 x 10(-2)-1.23 Bq L(-1) (0.42-33 pCi L(-1)) for 224Ra, 2.2 x 10(-3)-0.81 Bq L(-1) (0.06-22 pCi L(-1)) for 226Ra, and 8.5 x 10(-3)-1.31 Bq L(-1) (0.23-35 pCi L(-1)) for 228Ra in California groundwater. Uranium was found at the highest concentration on both mass and activity basis and was correlated with the gross alpha measurement. Short-lived radioisotopes showed no significant contribution to gross alpha measurements. There was a strong correlation between 224Ra and 228Ra activities, suggesting the latter to be an indicator for the occurrence of the former. Comparison of 226Ra to 238U, 224Ra to 226Ra, and 226Ra to 228Ra showed scattered data indicating no correlation between each of these isotope pairs. Approximately 4% of the wells were found to exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established maximum contaminant level for total radium of 0.185 Bq L(-1) (5 pCi L(-1)). Analysis of 228Ra by gamma-ray spectroscopy was in good agreement with the U.S. EPA-approved procedure.

Receptor binding assay for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins: optimization and interlaboratory comparison.

A receptor binding assay (RBA) for detection of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins was formatted for use in a high throughput detection system using microplate scintillation counting. The RBA technology was transferred from the National Ocean Service, which uses a Wallac TriLux 1450 MicroBeta microplate scintillation counter, to the California Department of Health Services, which uses a Packard TopCount scintillation counter. Due to differences in the detector arrangement between these 2 counters, markedly different counting efficiencies were exhibited, requiring optimization of the RBA protocol for the TopCount instrument. Precision, accuracy, and sensitivity [limit of detection = 0.2 microg saxitoxin (STX) equiv/100 g shellfish tissue] of the modified protocol were equivalent to those of the original protocol. The RBA robustness and adaptability were demonstrated by an interlaboratory study, in which STX concentrations in shellfish generated by the TopCount were consistent with MicroBeta-derived values. Comparison of STX reference standards obtained from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the National Research Council, Canada, showed no observable differences. This study confirms the RBA's value as a rapid, high throughput screen prior to testing by the conventional mouse bioassay (MBA) and its suitability for providing an early warning of increasing PSP toxicity when toxin levels are below the MBA limit of detection.

Atmospheric pressure ionization LC-MS-MS determination of urushiol congeners.

This paper describes atmospheric pressure ionization (API) LC-MS-MS determination of urushiols, 3-n-alkenyl- and -alkyl-substituted catechols responsible for poison oak dermatitis. Urushiol was isolated from Western poison oak according to the method of Elsohly et al. (1) (J. Nat. Prod. 1982, 45, 532-538)-the purified preparation contained C(17)- and C(15)-substituted urushiols with zero, one, two, and three double bonds as determined from GC-MS analysis of trimethylsilyl derivatives. Urushiol mixtures were separated on a C(18) reversed phase HPLC column with a methanol-water gradient with urushiols eluting in 100% methanol. Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) produced primarily [M - H](-) and MH(+) molecule ions. Electrospray ionization (ESI) yielded [M - H](-) and adduct ions including [M + Cl](-). Daughter ions of [M - H](-) included quinoid radical anions ([M - H - H(2)](-) and m/z 122(-)) and a benzofuran phenate (m/z 135(-)). A suite of hydrocarbon fragments were produced by collision-induced dissociation of MH(+) directly or via an intermediate [MH - H(2)O](+) daughter ion. Six urushiol congeners, one not previously reported in poison oak, were determined by negative ion API-LC-MS-MS with detection limits of approximately 8 pg/microL (ESI) and approximately 800 pg/microL (APCI). API-LC-MS-MS was used to determine urushiol in surface wipes, air samples, and plant materials.