Sjögren's syndrome: one year in review 2023.

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterised by the T-cell-mediated hyperactivation of B-cells and cytokine production. The condition may evolve from an asymptomatic, indolent course, with glandular involvement, to extra-glandular systemic manifestations up to lymphoma development. On tissue level, the typical feature is the lymphocytic infiltration of the salivary gland by B-, T- and antigen presenting cells, as mirrored by the diagnostic cornerstone role of minor salivary gland (MSG) biopsy. Recently, increasing research focused on the investigation of mechanisms underlying the complex pathogenesis of the disease and highlighted the multi-factorial nature of SS consisting of concomitant involvement of environmental, genetic, neuroendocrine and immune factors. In particular, many aspects have been investigated regarding genetic and epigenetics, the role of specific B- and T-cell phenotypes and the investigation of disease-specific biomarkers as predictors of disease development, activity, and lymphomagenesis. Surely, a deeper understanding of these multiple mechanisms may facilitate earlier diagnosis, enable subphenotyping of patients and open novel therapeutic possibilities to address the unmet needs of the disease in the upcoming years.In this review, following the others of this series, we will summarise the most recent literature on pSS pathogenesis and clinical features focusing in particular on new insights into pSS molecular stratification and therapeutic advances in the era of precision medicine.

Heterogeneity of determining disease severity, clinical course and outcomes in systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease: a systematic literature review.

Objective The course of systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) is highly variable and different from continuously progressive idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Most proposed definitions of progressive pulmonary fibrosis or SSc-ILD severity are based on the research data from patients with IPF and are not validated for patients with SSc-ILD. Our study aimed to gather the current evidence for severity, progression and outcomes of SSc-ILD.Methods A systematic literature review to search for definitions of severity, progression and outcomes recorded for SSc-ILD was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines in Medline, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library up to 1 August 2023.Results A total of 9054 papers were reviewed and 342 were finally included. The most frequent tools used for the definition of SSc-ILD progression and severity were combined changes of carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (DLCO) and forced vital capacity (FVC), isolated FVC or DLCO changes, high-resolution CT (HRCT) extension and composite algorithms including pulmonary function test, clinical signs and HRCT data. Mortality was the most frequently reported long-term event, both from all causes or ILD related.Conclusions The studies presenting definitions of SSc-ILD 'progression', 'severity' and 'outcome' show a large heterogeneity. These results emphasise the need for developing a standardised, consensus definition of severe SSc-ILD, to link a disease specific definition of progression as a surrogate outcome for clinical trials and clinical practice.PROSPERO registration number CRD42022379254.Cite Now.

Long-term outcomes of COVID-19 vaccination in patients with rare and complex connective tissue diseases: The ERN-ReCONNET VACCINATE study.

Background: Vaccination is one of the most important measures to contain the COVID-19 pandemic, especially for frail patients. VACCINATE is a multicentre prospective observational study promoted by the European Reference Network on Rare and Complex Connective Tissue and Musculoskeletal Diseases (ERN ReCONNET) aimed at assessing the long-term outcomes of COVID-19 vaccination in patients with rare and complex connective tissue diseases (rcCTDs) in terms of efficacy and safety. Methods: Adult rcCTDs patients were eligible for recruitment. Demographic, clinical and vaccination data were collected at enrolment. Follow-up visits were scheduled 4, 12, 24, 36 and 48 weeks after completion of the first vaccination cycle; data on adverse events, disease exacerbations and the occurrence of new SARS-CoV-2 infections were collected at these time-points. Findings: 365 rcCTDs patients (87 % female, mean age 51.8 ± 14.6 years) were recruited. Overall, 200 patients (54.8 %) experienced at least one adverse event, generally mild and in most cases occurring early after the vaccination. During follow-up, 55 disease exacerbations were recorded in 39 patients (10.7 %), distributed over the entire observation period, although most frequently within 4 weeks after completion of the vaccination cycle. The incidence of new SARS-CoV-2 infections was 8.9 per 1000 person-months, with no cases within 12 weeks from vaccine administration and an increasing trend of infections moving away from the primary vaccination cycle. Only one case of severe COVID-19 was reported during the study period. Interpretation: COVID-19 vaccination seems effective and safe in rcCTDs patients. The rate of new infections was rather low and serious infections were uncommon in our cohort. No increased risk of disease flares was observed compared to previous disease history; however, such exacerbations may be potentially severe, emphasising the need for close monitoring of our patients.

Potential Role of JAK Inhibitors in the Treatment of Systemic Sclerosis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease: A Narrative Review from Pathogenesis to Real-Life Data.

BACKGROUND: Systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) is one of the most relevant complications of SSc and the major cause of death. The pathogenesis of SSc-ILD involves a complex interplay of multiple cell types and different molecular pathways, with both inflammation and fibrosis as pathological hallmarks. To date, there are no treatments able to target both components of the disease. Janus kinase inhibitors (JAKinibs) represent an interesting therapeutic option because they exert both anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties. METHODS: Here, we performed a narrative review concerning the potential role of JAKinibs in SSc-ILD to define the state of art and to evaluate the pathogenetic rationale behind this type of treatment. RESULTS: Currently, few studies investigated SSc-ILD response to JAKinibs treatment. Data were analyzed from three clinical studies and four case reports and progression of SSc-ILD was not evident in 93.5% of patients treated with JAKinibs. CONCLUSIONS: Available evidence of efficacy of JAKinibs in SSc-ILD is sparse but promising. JAKinibs could be an interesting treatment in SSc-ILD because of their potential inhibition of the fibrotic processes combined with their anti-inflammatory action. Moreover, JAKinibs were also shown in some studies to have a potential effect on pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), another threatening complication in SSc. More data are necessary to define JAKinibs role in SSc-ILD treatment.

The Use and Utility of Machine Learning in Achieving Precision Medicine in Systemic Sclerosis: A Narrative Review.

BACKGROUND: Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a rare connective tissue disease that can affect different organs and has extremely heterogenous presentations. This complexity makes it difficult to perform an early diagnosis and a subsequent subclassification of the disease. This hinders a personalized approach in clinical practice. In this context, machine learning (ML), a branch of artificial intelligence (AI), is able to recognize relationships in data and predict outcomes. METHODS: Here, we performed a narrative review concerning the application of ML in SSc to define the state of art and evaluate its role in a precision medicine context. RESULTS: Currently, ML has been used to stratify SSc patients and identify those at high risk of severe complications. Additionally, ML may be useful in the early detection of organ involvement. Furthermore, ML might have a role in target therapy approach and in predicting drug response. CONCLUSION: Available evidence about the utility of ML in SSc is sparse but promising. Future improvements in this field could result in a big step toward precision medicine. Further research is needed to define ML application in clinical practice.

The Yin-Yang Pharmacomicrobiomics on Treatment Response in Inflammatory Arthritides: A Narrative Review.

(1) Background: Gut microbiota (GM) is the set of microorganisms inhabiting the gastroenteric tract that seems to have a role in the pathogenesis of rheumatic diseases. Recently, many authors proved that GM may influence pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of several drugs with complex interactions that are studied by the growing field of pharmacomicrobiomics. The aim of this review is to highlight current evidence on pharmacomicrobiomics applied to the main treatments of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Spondyloarthritis in order to maximize therapeutic success, in the framework of Personalized Medicine. (2) Methods: We performed a narrative review concerning pharmacomicrobiomics in inflammatory arthritides. We evaluated the influence of gut microbiota on treatment response of conventional Disease Modifying Anti-Rheumatic drugs (cDMARDs) (Methotrexate and Leflunomide) and biological Disease Modifying Anti-Rheumatic drugs (bDMARDs) (Tumor necrosis factor inhibitors, Interleukin-17 inhibitors, Interleukin 12/23 inhibitors, Abatacept, Janus Kinase inhibitors and Rituximab). (3) Results: We found a great amount of studies concerning Methotrexate and Tumor Necrosis Inhibitors (TNFi). Conversely, fewer data were available about Interleukin-17 inhibitors (IL-17i) and Interleukin 12/23 inhibitors (IL-12/23i), while none was identified for Janus Kinase Inhibitors (JAKi), Tocilizumab, Abatacept and Rituximab. We observed that microbiota and drugs are influenced in a mutual and reciprocal way. Indeed, microbiota seems to influence therapeutic response and efficacy, whereas in the other hand, drugs may restore healthy microbiota. (4) Conclusions: Future improvement in pharmacomicrobiomics could help to detect an effective biomarker able to guide treatment choice and optimize management of inflammatory arthritides.

Selective elimination of HIV-1-infected cells by Env-directed, HIV-1-based virus-like particles.

We recently showed that both replicating and resting cells cultivated with ganciclovir (GCV) were killed when challenged with vesicular stomatitis virus G glycoprotein pseudotyped HIV-1-based virus-like particles (VLPs) carrying the Nef7 (i.e., an HIV-1 Nef mutant incorporating in virions at high levels)/herpes simplex virus-1 thymidine kinase (HSV-TK) fusion product. On this basis, a novel anti-HIV therapeutic approach based on Nef7/TK VLPs expressing X4 or R5 HIV cell receptor complexes has been attempted. We here report that (CD4-CXCR4) and (CD4-CCR5) Nef7-based VLPs efficiently enter cells infected by X4- or R5-tropic HIV-1 strains, respectively. Importantly, the delivery of the VLP-associated Nef7/TK led to cell death upon GCV treatment. Of interest, VLPs were effective also against non-replicating, HIV-1-infected primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. HIV-targeted VLPs represent a promising candidate for the treatment of persistently HIV-1-infected cells that are part of virus reservoirs resistant to HAART therapies.

Lymphocyte-dendritic cell interactions and mucosal acquisition of SIV/HIV infection.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Several previous models of HIV dissemination implicated dendritic cells as viral conduits to the lymphatics. However, recent macaque transmission and microbicide studies have highlighted a more complex situation. RECENT FINDINGS: Resting CD4 lymphocytes are observed to be the major infected population in mucosal tissue after vaginal challenge with SIV. Resting lymphocytes appear to bridge infection over short distances, whereas activated lymphocytes provide long-distance virus dissemination as a result of greater virus amplification. In addition, dendritic cells might be early carriers of virus, transmitting virus to T cells locally and to the lymph nodes, and thus support parallel mechanisms in transmission. Microbicide studies using agents against CCR5 corroborate a model that infection at the mucosa must occur for transmission to be successful. The fast-rate dendritic cell trafficking of virus to the lymphatics may not result in immediate and efficient viral replication in lymphatic tissue. As dendritic cells might also be infected at the mucosa before lymphatic trafficking, this would enable them to transfer virus in this region at a later timepoint. SUMMARY: There are now several models that can be attributed to the mucosal acquisition of SIV/HIV. One feature that unites these models is that infection in the mucosa must occur for dissemination to take place. Whether this is a feature of CD4 lymphocytes, dendritic cells or macrophage infection is still unclear. A model that intertwines one or more of the above cell types would be more prudent than addressing each in isolation.

Cell death induced by the herpes simplex virus-1 thymidine kinase delivered by human immunodeficiency virus-1-based virus-like particles.

HIV-1 Nef incorporates into virions at low levels, likely about 10 molecules per viral particle. Here, we describe a Nef mutant (Nef7) apparently showing more than 100-fold higher efficiency of virion incorporation. Interestingly, Nef7 can act as a cargo molecule for protein delivery into the cells, as its virion incorporation appeared conserved even upon C-terminal fusion with proteins of up to 30 kDa. This was demonstrated first by assessing the intracellular fluorescence of cells challenged with lentivirus-based virus-like particles (VLPs) pseudotyped with the vesicular stomatitis virus envelope glycoprotein (VSV-G) and incorporating Nef7 fused with the green fluorescent protein. Furthermore, the biologic activity of products delivered by Nef7-based VLPs was demonstrated by tagging Nef7 with the herpes simplex virus-1 thymidine kinase (HSV-1 TK). In fact, we observed that both cell lines and primary human macrophages challenged with (VSV-G) Nef7/TK VLPs died after 5 to 7 days of treatment with ganciclovir (GCV). In sum, our findings support the notion that Nef7-based VLPs can be considered platforms for original systems of protein delivery. In particular, the here- described Nef7/TK VLPs represent a first applicative example opening the way toward new HSV-1 TK/GCV-based cell suicide therapies circumventing cell gene engineering procedures.

Immunomodulatory effects of HSV-2 infection on immature macaque dendritic cells modify innate and adaptive responses.

Herpes simplex viruses (HSV) infect human and murine dendritic cells (DCs) and interfere with their immunostimulatory functions in culture. HSV-2 infection increases human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) spread in patients, and DCs also promote HIV infection. We have studied these topics in rhesus macaque monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) to set the stage for future studies of these issues in animals. We provide the first evidence that macaque DCs become infected by HSV-2. Structural viral proteins (ICP5 [infected cell protein 5], glycoprotein D [gD], envelope) were detected in the cell periphery, and a functional protein (infected cell protein 8 [ICP8]) was predominantly found in the nucleus after infection. Infectious HSV-2 induced apoptotic death, decreased expression of HLA-DR, CD40, CD80, CD83, and CD86, and increased release of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha) (CCL3), and RANTES (regulated on activation normal T cells expressed and secreted) (CCL5) but not IL-12 or interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) by macaque DCs. This coincided with HSV-2-infected DCs stimulating weak T-cell responses, including impaired SIV-specific responses. Comparable HSV-2 protein expression, DC apoptosis, as well as membrane immunophenotype and functional modifications were observed in HSV-2-exposed human moDCs. Such HSV-2-induced modifications of macaque and human DCs could augment DC-driven immunodeficiency virus infection. This work affords the basis for future macaque studies to explore how HSV-2 impacts the efficacy of strategies being developed to prevent HIV transmission.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Nef activates STAT3 in primary human monocyte/macrophages through the release of soluble factors: involvement of Nef domains interacting with the cell endocytotic machinery.

Increasing evidence indicates that the expression of the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) Nef protein significantly influences the activation state of the host cell. Here we report that Nef specifically activates STAT3 in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM). This was demonstrated by both single-cycle infection experiments driven by Vesicular Stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G) pseudotyped HIV-1 and treatment with exogenous recombinant Nef. The analysis of the effects of Nef mutants revealed that domains of the C-terminal flexible loop interacting with the cell endocytotic machinery are involved in the STAT3 activation. In particular, our data suggest that the Nef-dependent STAT3 activation relies on the targeting of Nef to the late endosome/lysosome compartment. In addition, we found that Nef activates STAT3 through a mechanism mediated by the release of soluble factor(s), including MIP-1alpha, that requires de novo protein synthesis but appears independent from the activation of src tyrosine kinases. The results presented here support the idea that the first intervention of Nef in the intracellular signaling of monocyte-macrophages could generate, by means of the release of soluble factor(s), a secondary wave of activation that could be of a potential pathogenetic significance.