Current Practice and Practice Competencies of Clinical Nurse Specialists Working in US Emergency Care Settings: A Survey Study.

PURPOSE/AIMS: The aim of this study was to investigate the current practice of clinical nurse specialists working in US emergency care settings to (1) explicate the application of the Emergency Nurses Association core competencies and define the specialized clinical nurse specialist role in emergency care and (2) align current clinical nurse specialist practice in emergency settings with the National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists core competencies and the identified substantive areas of clinical nurse specialist practice. DESIGN: This study used a quantitative exploratory descriptive approach using survey data. METHODS: A purposive convenience sample was recruited from the Emergency Nurses Association and the National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists. Participants completed a 39-item survey based on a consensus process to develop competencies for emergency department (ED)-situated clinical nurse specialists. RESULTS: Respondents (n = 285) reported spending more than 50% of their work time in a primary clinical nurse specialist role. Significant differences in practice were found between geographic location, setting, educational preparation, title protection status, and type of institution. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that that the competencies ascribed to ED-situated clinical nurse specialists are valid in both frequency and importance. However, ED-situated clinical nurse specialists are not fully credentialed or practicing to the full extent of their education and licenses, because of professional, legislative, and environmental limitations.

The Experiences of United States Emergency Nurses Related to Witnessed and Experienced Bias: A Mixed-Methods Study.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to obtain a broad view of the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and lived experiences of emergency nurses regarding implicit and explicit bias. METHODS: An exploratory, descriptive, sequential mixed-methods approach using online surveys and focus groups to generate study data. Two validated instruments were incorporated into the survey to evaluate experiences of microaggression in the workplace and ethnocultural empathy. Focus group data were collected using Zoom meetings. RESULTS: The final sample comprised 1140 participants in the survey arm and 23 focus group participants. Significant differences were found in reported experiences of institutional, structural, and personal microaggressions for non-white vs white participants. Respondents who identified Christianity as their religious group had lower mean scores on items representing empathetic awareness. Respondents who identified as nonheterosexual had significantly higher mean total Scale of Ethnocultural Empathy scores, empathetic awareness subscale scores, and empathetic feeling and expression subscale scores. Thematic categories that arose from the focus group data included witnessed bias, experienced bias, responses to bias, impact of bias on care, and solutions. DISCUSSION: In both our survey and focus group data, we see evidence that racism and other forms of bias are threats to safe patient care. We challenge all emergency nurses and institutions to reflect on the implicit and explicit biases they hold and to engage in purposeful learning about the effects of individual and structural bias on patients and colleagues. We suggest an approach that favors structural analysis, intervention, and accountability.

Role and Training of Emergency Department Charge Nurses: A Mixed Methods Analysis of Processes, Needs, and Expectations.

INTRODUCTION: Charge nurses (CNs) are shift leaders who manage resources and facilitate patient care, yet CNs in EDs receive minimal training, with implications for patient safety and emergency nursing practice. The purpose of the study was to describe the experiences of emergency nurses related to training, preparation, and function of the CN role. METHODS: An explanatory sequential mixed methods design using survey data (n = 2579) and focus group data (n = 49) from both CN and staff nurse perspectives. RESULTS: Participants reported minimal training for the CN role, with divergent understandings of role, required education and experience, the need for situational awareness, and the acceptability of the CN taking on other duties. CONCLUSIONS: The ED CN is critical to the safety of both nursing environment and patient care. Nurses in this pivotal role do not receive adequate leadership orientation or formal training in the key areas of nurse patient assignment, communication, and situational awareness. Formal training in nurse-patient assignment, communication, and situational awareness are critical to appropriate patient care and maintenance of interprofessional trust necessary for successful execution of the CN role. ED nurse managers should advocate for this training.

Development of Nurse-Sensitive, Emergency Department-Specific Quality Indicators Using a Modified Delphi Technique.

BACKGROUND: There is no identified set of nursing-sensitive, emergency department (ED)-specific quality indicators. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to address the gap in quality indicators specific to the emergency care environment and identify a list of nursing-sensitive, ED-specific quality indicators across ED populations and phases of the ED visit for further development and testing. METHODS: A modified Delphi technique was used to reach initial consensus. RESULTS: Four thematic groups were identified, and quality indicators within each were rank ordered. Of the 4 groups, 21 quality indicators were identified: triage (6) was ranked highest, followed by special populations (4), transitions of care (4), and medical/surgical (7). CONCLUSIONS: Many of the recommended metrics were questionable because they are nonspecific to the ED setting or subject to influences in the emergency care environment. Some identified priorities for quality indicator development were unsupported; we recommend that alternate methodologies be used to identify critical areas of quality measurement.

Educational Needs of U.S. Emergency Nurses Related to Forensic Nursing Processes.

BACKGROUND: Forensic nursing is a specialty deployed in patient care areas, including emergency departments, intensive care units, labor and delivery suites, and psychiatric units treating persons who have suffered trauma from a violent or criminal act. The recognition of violence-related injuries in patients presenting to health care facilities is critical to an appropriate care trajectory. These patients require specialized resources beyond the treatment of physical injuries to include psychosocial and legal care that supports patient recovery and pursuit of criminal justice. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to obtain a broad view of current forensic knowledge and training for emergency nurses working in U.S. emergency departments and to identify gaps in nursing skills and practice such that appropriate education can be developed for this nursing specialty. METHODS: The study was conducted using a quantitative exploratory, descriptive approach via an emailed cross-sectional survey sent to a convenience sample of U.S. emergency nurses. RESULTS: A total of 43,775 emails were sent out to members of the Emergency Nurses Association. Of that group, 2,493 recipients opened the email, and 1,824 completed the survey, resulting in a total response rate of 4% and a 73% response rate from those who opened the email. Few respondents self-reported competence in the care of patients who experienced child abuse (13.1%), elder abuse (12.4%), interpersonal violence (17.6%), sexual assault (19.2%), human trafficking (7.4%), developmental challenges (7.2%), strangulation (12.5%), or who were suspected of committing a violent crime (11.4%). CONCLUSIONS: There is a compelling need to expand forensic education to advance knowledge and skill acquisition in emergency nursing practice and provide staff with additional resources that support a holistic trauma-informed approach to patient care.

Validation of a grounded theory of nurse bullying in emergency department settings.

BACKGROUND: Workplace bullying in health care settings, including emergency departments (EDs), is a significant and negative factor in the dynamics of patient care, nursing work culture, and nurse retention. Specifically, workplace bullying has a significant and negative effect on patient care, with both direct (errors and substandard care) and indirect sequelae (high turnover and inexperienced nursing staff hired to replace those nurses who have left to escape bullying behavior). The purpose of this study was to determine the theoretical coherence of the ENA model of nurse bullying in emergency department and its impact on emergency nurses' intent to leave their job. METHODS: Correlational study using the Practice Environment Scale of the Nursing Work Index (PES-NWI), the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS), and the Short Negative Acts Questionnaire (SNAQ) in a cross-sectional sample of emergency nurses working in the United States. RESULTS: Extremely high intent to leave the current ED (PD1) rates were associated with nurses' reported exposure to daily bullying (PD1 rate = 67.6%, zero-order OR = 4.77, Nr2 = 3.2%, p < .001) and bullying multiple times per week (49.1%, zero-order OR = 2.31, Nr2 = 2.6%, p < .001). Nurses who reported no exposure to bullying at work had a distinctly below average PD1 rate (22.9%, OR = 0.47, Nr2 = 3.9%, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The relationships between the tested elements of the model (specifically, the influence of bullying on nurse intent to leave) as constructed appear to adequately reflect the phenomenon of workplace bullying and its effects on nurse retention in emergency care settings.

Traumatic stress in emergency nurses: Does your work environment feel like a war zone?

INTRODUCTION: Emergency nurses are exposed to both primary and secondary trauma with attendant sequelae in both work and personal spheres. The purpose of the study was to investigate the prevalence of traumatic stress, measured by the secondary traumatic stress scale (STSS) in a sample of emergency nurses and describe the impact of traumatic stress on nursing practice and workplace environment. METHODS: Mixed methods approach using survey instrument data from the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS) (N = 125) and focus group data (N = 53). RESULTS: The average total score on the STSS was 51.83 for nurses who attended one of the focus groups 48.42 for nurses who did not attend (clinical cutoff for STS = 39). Focus group data aligned with elements of the STSS; thematic categories of cumulative trauma, mental health sequelae, bullying and organizational violence, coping mechanisms, relationship damage, and solutions were described. Although we measured only STS, participants often used the terms "PTSD" and "STS" interchangeably. CONCLUSIONS: The nurses in this study demonstrated high levels of STS and described in detail how chronic, cumulative trauma affected relational nursing care and social connections. Participants discussed high levels of suicidality in the profession, and the compounding trauma of relational and organizational violence. The pervasiveness of traumatic stress and the extent to which it affects all areas of nurses' lives is a cause for great concern.

The perceived impact of legalized cannabis on nursing workload in adult and pediatric emergency department visits: A qualitative exploratory study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate changes in emergency nursing workload related to cannabis ingestion or inhalation by adult and pediatric patients in states and bordering states where recreational cannabis is legal. DESIGN: Qualitative exploratory design using data collected from focus groups. SAMPLE: Twenty-four English-speaking emergency nurses over the age of 18 who provide direct care to patients and work in US emergency departments located in a state, or bordering state, where recreational cannabis use is legal. MEASUREMENTS: Qualitative data were gathered using a semi-structured interview format and analyzed using situational analysis. RESULTS: The legalization of recreational cannabis in some US states is reported as resulting in an increase in patients presenting with cyclic vomiting syndromes, and increased difficulty in managing both associated behaviors and repetitive ED presentations. New presentations also include unintentional intoxication in both pediatric and geriatric populations. An unexpected finding was the displacement of local homeless populations by younger, indigent "cannabis tourists"; social services agencies might consider this while planning for cannabis legalization in their state or territory. CONCLUSIONS: To protect public health and safety, regulatory efforts to standardize the formulation, dosing and labeling of cannabis products would be beneficial along with educational initiatives for both consumers and health care providers.

Emergency Nurses' Perceptions of Risk for Firearm Injury and its Effect on Assessment Practices: A Mixed Methods Study.

INTRODUCTION: Injury from firearms is a significant problem in the United States, accounting for 73% of all homicides and 50% of all suicides that occurred among US residents. What is not known are the perceptions of emergency nurses regarding the impact of in-home access on the risk for firearm-related injury and death in their patient populations. The purpose of this study was to explore emergency nurses' perception of patient risk for firearm injury and in which ways that perception affected the process of ED patient screening, assessment, counseling, and discharge education. METHODS: We employed a mixed methods, sequential, explanatory design using quantitative survey data and qualitative focus-group data. RESULTS: Between 21.8 and 43.5% of respondents reported asking patients about access to in-home firearms, depending on presentation. Statistical analyses showed the single most significant factor correlated with nurses asking about the availability of a staff person who could further assess risk and offer assistance and safety counseling to patients. Another important influence was identified from focus-group discussions in which nurses reported that they felt challenged to bring up the topic of firearms in a way that did not seem confrontational. DISCUSSION: Access to firearms poses risk to patients, and patient safety and the continuum of care depends upon the emergency nurse assessing patient firearms risk and taking appropriate action. The findings from this study suggest that emergency departments (1) normalize and standardize the assessment of firearms, (2) designate an ED staff member on each shift to further assess risk if a positive response is elicited, and (3) continue to improve workplace safety.

Assessing for Occult Suicidality at Triage: Experiences of Emergency Nurses.

INTRODUCTION: Screening for suicidality is a critical nursing function at the initial ED encounter. Suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States, and a substantial percentage of people who die by suicide present for health care in the year before their deaths. The emergency department provides health care professionals with a critical opportunity to identify patients at risk for suicide and intervene appropriately. METHODS: Qualitative exploratory study using focus-group data. FINDINGS: Effective and accurate suicidality assessment occurs not by asking a single question but also with the assessment of patient behaviors and presentation (appearance, hygiene, etc). When emergency nurses suspected occult suicidality, additional actions (finding private space, keeping patients safe, and passing on information), took priority. DISCUSSION: The Joint Commission recommends using clinical judgment tools for the final determination of safety for a patient at suspected risk of suicide, as research findings suggest that a screening tool can identify persons at risk for suicide more reliably than a clinician's personal judgment. Our participants report that when they assessed suicide risk at triage, it was usually by asking a single question such as "Do you have thoughts or plans to harm yourself?" and they expressed concern about the effectiveness of doing so. Participants described their efforts to improve suicide screening across the duration of the patient's ED stay through an iterative process of assessment that included further probing and eliciting, evaluating, and reacting to the patient's response.

Workplace bullying in emergency nursing: Development of a grounded theory using situational analysis.

BACKGROUND: The Institute of Medicine recognizes that the workplace environment is a crucial factor in the ability of nurses to provide safe and effective care, and thus interactions that affect the quality and safety of the work environment require exploration. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to use situational analysis to develop a grounded theory of workplace bullying as it manifests specifically in the emergency care setting. METHODS: This study used a grounded theory methodology called situational analysis. 44 emergency RNs were recruited to participate in one of 4 focus group sessions, which were transcribed in their entirety, and, along with field notes, served as the dataset. RESULTS: This grounded theory describes the characteristics of human actors and their reactions to conditions in the practice environment that lead to greater or lesser levels of bullying, and the responses to bullying as it occurs in U.S. emergency departments. DISCUSSION: Workplace bullying is a significant factor in the dynamics of patient care, nursing work culture, and nursing retention. The impact on patient care cannot be overestimated, both in terms of errors, substandard care, and the negative effects of high turnover of experienced RNs who leave, compounded by the inexperience of newly hired RNs. An assessment of hospital work environments should include nurse perceptions of workplace bullying, and interventions should focus on effective managerial processes for handling workplace bullying. Future research should include testing of the theoretical coherence of the model, and the testing of bullying interventions to determine the effect on workplace environment, nursing intent to leave/retention, and patient outcomes.

Triaging the Emergency Department, Not the Patient: United States Emergency Nurses' Experience of the Triage Process.

INTRODUCTION: Triage, as it is understood in the context of the emergency department, is the first and perhaps the most formal stage of the initial patient encounter. Bottlenecks during intake and long waiting room times have been linked to higher rates of patients leaving without being seen. The solution in many emergency departments has been to collect less information at triage or use an "immediate bedding" or "pull until full" approach, in which patients are placed in treatment areas as they become available without previous screening. The purpose of this study was to explore emergency nurses' understanding of-and experience with-the triage process, and to identify facilitators and barriers to accurate acuity assignation. METHODS: An exploratory qualitative study using focus-group interviews (N = 26). RESULTS: Five themes were identified: (1) "Sick or not sick," (2) "Competency/qualifications," (3) "Triaging the emergency department, not the patient," (4) "The unexpected," and (5) "Barriers and facilitators." DISCUSSION: Our participants described processes that were unit- and/or nurse-dependent and were manipulations of the triage system to "fix" problems in ED flow, rather than a standard application of a triage system. Our participants reported that, in practice, the use of triage scales to determine acuity and route patients to appropriate resources varies in accuracy and application among emergency nurses and in their respective emergency departments. Nurses in this sample reported a prevalence of "quick look" triage approaches that do not rely on physiologic data to make acuity decisions. Future research should focus on intervention and comparison studies examining the effect of staffing, nurse experience, hospital policies, and length of shift on the accuracy of triage decision making. Contribution to Emergency Nursing Practice.

The Experience of Advanced Practice Nurses in US Emergency Care Settings.

INTRODUCTION: Little information has been published regarding the actual practice, training, and validation of basic skills and competencies needed by the advanced practice registered nurse (APRN) in the emergency care setting. The purpose of this study was to (1) identify skills being performed by APRNs practicing in emergency care settings (2); explore types of training; and (3) describe competency validation. Additionally, we explored frequency of skill use and facilitators and barriers to performing a skill to the full extent of training and education. METHODS: An exploratory mixed-methods study was performed incorporating a self-report survey and focus group interviews. RESULTS: The educational path to advanced practice nursing in emergency care settings is not standardized. Few programs incorporate or address the need for APRNs to receive acute care training across the life span, which is the hallmark of emergency nursing practice. Similarly, training is reported as fragmented, and validation of skills for both nurse practitioners and clinical nurse specialists can vary. APRN practice autonomy is affected by the presence of other providers (specifically physicians), institutional culture, and state boards of nursing that regulate practice. DISCUSSION: Integrated educational and orientation programs are needed that address high-acuity patients across the life span. Additionally, a more nuanced approach to assessing APRN capabilities as a combination of hard (clinical emergency) and soft (communication and organizational) skills may be an appropriate framework within which to examine the advanced practice role. Future research should continue to evaluate training, competency assessment, and outcomes for APRNs in the emergency care setting.

Workplace aggression as cause and effect: Emergency nurses' experiences of working fatigued.

INTRODUCTION: Emergency nursing requires acute attention to detail to provide safe and effective care to potentially unstable or critically ill patients; this requirement may be significantly impaired by physical and mental fatigue. There is a lack of evidence regarding the effects of fatigue caused by factors other than a sleep deficit (e.g., emotional exhaustion). Fatigue affects nurses' ability to work safely in the emergency care setting and potentially impacts their health and quality of life outside of work. METHODS: This was the qualitative arm of a mixed methods study; we used a qualitative exploratory design with focus group data from a sample of 16 emergency nurses. Themes were identified using an inductive approach to content analysis. RESULTS/DISCUSSION: The following themes were identified: "It's a weight on your back;" "Competitive nursing;" "It's never enough;" "You have to get away;" and "Engagement as a solution." CONCLUSIONS: Our participants reported high levels of fatigue, which compromised patient care, had a negative effect on their personal lives, and created a toxic unit environment. They reported lateral violence as both the cause and effect of mental and emotional fatigue, suggesting that unit culture affects nurses and the patients they care for.

On the Threshold of Safety: A Qualitative Exploration of Nurses' Perceptions of Factors Involved in Safe Staffing Levels in Emergency Departments.

The emergency department is a unique practice environment in that the Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA), which mandates a medical screening examination for all presenting patients, effectively precludes any sort of patient volume control; staffing needs are therefore fluid and unpredictable. The purpose of this study is to explore emergency nurses' perceptions of factors involved in safe staffing levels and to identify factors that negatively and positively influence staffing levels and might lend themselves to more effective interventions and evaluations. METHODS: We used a qualitative exploratory design with focus group data from a sample of 26 emergency nurses. Themes were identified using a constructivist perspective and an inductive approach to content analysis. RESULTS: Five themes were identified: (1) unsafe environment of care, (2) components of safety, (3) patient outcomes: risky care, (4) nursing outcomes: leaving the profession, and (5) possible solutions. Participants reported that staffing levels are determined by the number of beds in the department (as in inpatient units) but not by patient acuity or the number of patients waiting for treatment. Participants identified both absolute numbers of staff, as well as experience mix, as components of safe staffing. Inability to predict the acuity of patients waiting to be seen was a major component of nurses' perceptions of unsafe staffing. DISCUSSION: Emergency nurses perceive staffing to be inadequate, and therefore unsafe, because of the potential for poor patient outcomes, including missed or delayed care, missed deterioration (failure to rescue), and additional ED visits resulting from ineffective discharge teaching. Both absolute numbers of staff, as well as skill and experience mix, should be considered to provide staffing levels that promote optimal patient and nurse outcomes.

The Effect of Reported Sleep, Perceived Fatigue, and Sleepiness on Cognitive Performance in a Sample of Emergency Nurses.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between reported sleep, perceived fatigue and sleepiness, and cognitive performance. BACKGROUND: Although evidence suggests that fatigue and sleepiness affect the provision of care in inpatient units, there is a lack of research on the sleep patterns of emergency nurses and the effects of disturbed sleep and fatigue on their cognitive abilities and susceptibility to medical errors. METHODS: A quantitative correlational design was used in this study; in each of 7 different statistical models, zero-order relationships between predictors and the dependent variable were examined with appropriate inferential tests. RESULTS: Participants reported high levels of sleepiness and chronic fatigue that impeded full functioning both at work and at home. CONCLUSIONS: Although high levels of self-reported fatigue did not show any effects on cognitive function, other factors in the environment may contribute to delayed, missed, or inappropriate care. Further research is indicated.

"It's a Burden You Carry": Describing Moral Distress in Emergency Nursing.

INTRODUCTION: Moral distress in nursing has been studied in many settings, but there is a paucity of research on moral distress as it manifests in the emergency department. One study suggests a correlation between moral distress and aspects of burnout, and other researchers report that nurses have considered leaving their position or even their profession because of moral distress. Further exploration of these issues may provide insight into their effects on ED patient care and the emergency nursing profession. The purpose of this study was to explore the nature of moral distress as it is experienced and described by emergency nurses. METHODS: A qualitative, exploratory design was employed using semi-structured focus groups for data collection. Using an iterative process, transcripts were analyzed for emerging themes by the research team. Six researchers analyzed the transcripts using a thematic analysis approach. RESULTS: Themes from the data included dysfunctional practice arena, being overwhelmed, and adaptive/maladaptive coping. Participants described, overall, a profound feeling of not being able to provide patient care as they wanted to. DISCUSSION: Causes of moral distress in emergency nurses are environment driven, not incident driven, as is described in other settings, and include a high-acuity, high-demand, technical environment with insufficient resources. Interventions should be targeted to improve environmental factors that contribute to the moral distress of emergency nurses. Future research should focus on the development and validation of an instrument to measure moral distress in this setting.

Exploring the Management of Death: Emergency Nurses' Perceptions of Challenges and Facilitators in the Provision of End-of-Life Care in the Emergency Department.

INTRODUCTION: The importance of end-of-life (EOL) care for dying patients and their families is well described; however, little research has been performed in emergency settings. The purpose of this study was to explore emergency nurses' perceptions of challenges and facilitators in the care of patients at the EOL. METHODS: A mixed-methods design using survey data (N = 1,879) and focus group data (N = 17). Data were collected on questions regarding care of the EOL patient in the emergency department, specifically nurses' perceptions of the care of these patients; educational content needs; barriers to safe and effective care; and the availability of resources. RESULTS: High scores on the quantitative survey showed a high mean level of consistently positive attitudes and beliefs toward caring for dying patients and their families and loved ones (131.26 ± 10.88). Analysis of the focus group transcripts uncovered 9 themes, reflecting concerns around comfort and challenges with EOL care, appropriate training for nurses, and the availability of resources to provide this type of care in the emergency setting. Also noted was dissonance between the nature of emergency care and the nature of EOL care. DISCUSSION: Emergency nurses are comfortable providing EOL care in the emergency setting but note that challenges to providing good care include lack of space, time, and staff. Other challenges involve the mismatch between the goals of emergency care and those of EOL care, as well as the emotional burden of caring for the dying, especially when the appropriate resources are lacking.