The art of establishing mineral tolerances of dogs and cats.

For over six decades, nutritional science has provided well-developed, peer-reviewed nutrient recommendations to support the health of dogs and cats. These guidelines are updated based on new scientifically valid research and appropriate peer-review. Recent regulatory and scientific positions around health issues have resulted in strong opinions and desires for rapid regulatory action surrounding mineral nutrition, but with limited and conflicting scientific evidence. Pet Food Institute nutrition experts have come together to jointly author an article on the complexities of establishing mineral tolerances of dogs and cats to illustrate the limitations in defining mineral tolerances. This discussion covers how mineral requirements were determined, including the opportunities and pitfalls encountered. Scientific councils must review and clarify any proposed changes in conducting mineral nutrition research that might impact complete and balanced foods and surrounding regulations. It is important to clarify the multiple issues in mineral nutrition research and the necessity for thorough evaluation of data while avoiding arbitrary and potentially harmful guidelines.

Dogs and cats are living longer and healthier lives due, in part, to the scientific development of nutritional information. This information has allowed the building of many new types of foods, treats, and supplements that promote life, health, and enjoyment by the pet. There are several organizations that have provided helpful reviews of nutritional data through scientific councils that help identify safe and healthy criteria for all pet food products. These are readily available for those who want to learn more about pet nutrition. For many nutrients, there is a large database of information to help build products. Nutrients that are called macro- or micro-/trace minerals (e.g., sodium, potassium, zinc, copper, etc.) often have more limited information. Recently, strong opinions about pet health as related to mineral nutrition have been shared and robustly communicated without adequate scientific research to support the hypotheses. This has led to misinformation, concerns, and fear. To safeguard the health of companion animals and provide assistance to regulatory bodies regarding the nutritional welfare of dogs and cats, scientific panels have come together from industry, government, and academia to review, approve, and challenge nutritional guidelines. This overview provides the reader context into the rigor needed to establish safe mineral tolerances for dogs and cats.

Effects of consuming a high-protein diet with or without soy protein during weight loss and maintenance: a non-inferiority, randomized clinical efficacy trial.

OBJECTIVE: This 12-month randomized, non-inferiority clinical trial sought to determine the impact of consuming soy protein as part of an energy-restricted, high-protein diet on weight loss, body composition and cardiometabolic health. METHODS: Seventy-one adults (58 female) with overweight or obesity (body mass index: 32.9 ± 3.6 kg m-2) were randomly assigned to consume three servings of soy (S) or non-soy (NS) protein foods per day for 12 months. All participants completed a group-based behavioural weight loss program lasting 4 months (M4), and follow-up assessments were completed at month 12 (M12). RESULTS: Body weight was reduced in both groups at M4 (S: -7.0% ± 5.2%, NS: -7.1% ± 5.7%) and M12 (S: 3.6% ± 5.1%, NS: -4.8% ± 7.3%). Body weight reductions (mean difference [90% confidence interval]) were not different between S and NS at either time point (M4: -0.16% [-1.4, 3.6], P = 0.90; M12: 1.1% [-1.4, 3.6], P = 0.44). Differences in body fat mass loss were not different between S and NS at M4 (0.29 ± 0.84 kg, P = 0.73) or M12 (0.78 ± 1.5 kg, P = 0.59). Weight loss-induced improvements in cholesterol, triglycerides and blood pressure did not differ between S and NS. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that soy-based protein foods can be effectively incorporated into an energy-restricted, high-protein diet for improving body weight, body composition and cardiometabolic health.

Equivalent reductions in body weight during the Beef WISE Study: beef's role in weight improvement, satisfaction and energy.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this randomized equivalence trial was to determine the impact of consuming lean beef as part of a high protein (HP) weight-reducing diet on changes in body weight, body composition and cardiometabolic health. METHODS: A total of 120 adults (99 female) with overweight or obesity (BMI: 35.7 ± 7.0 kg m-2) were randomly assigned to consume either a HP diet with ≥4 weekly servings of lean beef (B; n = 60) or a HP diet restricted in all red meats (NB; n = 60) during a 16-week weight loss intervention. RESULTS: Body weight was reduced by 7.8 ± 5.9% in B and 7.7 ± 5.5% in NB (p < 0.01 for both). Changes in percent body weight were equivalent between B and NB (mean difference: 0.06%, 90% confidence interval: (-1.7, 1.8)). Fat mass was reduced in both groups (p < 0.01; B: 8.0 ± 0.6 kg, NB: 8.6 ± 0.6 kg), while lean mass was not reduced in either group. Improvements in markers of cardiometabolic health (total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides and blood pressure) were not different between B and NB. CONCLUSION: Results of this study demonstrate that HP diets - either rich or restricted in red meat intakes - are effective for decreasing body weight and improving body composition and cardiometabolic health.

The association of change in physical activity and body weight in the regulation of total energy expenditure.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The limited success in addressing the current obesity epidemic reflects the insufficient understanding of the regulation of energy balance. The present study examines the longitudinal association of body weight with physical activity (PA), total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and total daily energy intake (TDEI). SUBJECTS/METHODS: A total of 195 adults (52% male) between 21 and 35 years of age with no intention for weight loss were followed over a 2-year period. Body weight, fat mass and fat-free mass were measured every 3 months. Participants were stratified into three groups based on change in body weight using a 5% cutpoint. TDEE and time spent in different PA intensities were determined via a multisensor device at each measurement time. TDEI was calculated based on change in body composition and TDEE. RESULTS: At 2-year follow-up, 57% of the participants maintained weight, 14% lost weight and 29% gained weight. Average weight change was -6.9±3.4 and 7.1±3.6 kg in the weight-loss and weight-gain groups, respectively. Average TDEE and TDEI did not change significantly in any weight change group (P>0.16). Moderate-to-vigorous PA, however, increased significantly in the weight-loss group (35±49 min/day; P<0.01) and decreased in the weight-gain group (-35±46 min/day; P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Results of this observational study indicate an inverse association between body weight and PA to maintain a stable TDEE and allow for a stable TDEI over time. Sufficient PA levels, therefore, are an important contributor to weight loss maintenance.

Initial weight loss goals: have they changed and do they matter?

OBJECTIVE: Nearly 20 years ago, participants in behavioural weight loss programmes reported goals that greatly exceeded the amount of weight typically produced by these programmes. Whether having unrealistic weight loss goals impacts weight loss or attrition is unclear. The intent of the current study was to revisit current weight loss goals and examine whether goals impact outcomes. METHODS: Adults (N = 308, BMI = 33.7 ± 4.2 kg/m2) participated in a 12-month behavioural weight management programme and completed questionnaires about their goals. RESULTS: Participants' weight loss goal was 19.8 ± 7.9% of their body weight, and 90.4% selected a goal ≥10%. Weight goals were not associated with weight loss at 3 (p = 0.75) or 12 months (p = 0.47), or from 3 to 12 months (p = 0.55). Weight loss goals were not related to attrition at 3 (p = 0.91) or 12 months (p = 0.86). Participants believed that weight reduction would positively impact their health and psychosocial functioning. CONCLUSION: Weight loss goals have decreased, but still greatly exceed what can be expected by most. Unrealistic goals, however, had no impact on weight loss or attrition. These results question the utility of counseling people with obesity to set more realistic weight loss goals, which is typically practiced in behavioural weight management.

The effects of experimentally manipulated social status on acute eating behavior: A randomized, crossover pilot study.

Both subjective and objectively measured social status has been associated with multiple health outcomes, including weight status, but the mechanism for this relationship remains unclear. Experimental studies may help identify the causal mechanisms underlying low social standing as a pathway for obesity. Our objective was to investigate the effects of experimentally manipulated social status on ad libitum acute dietary intakes and stress-related outcomes as potential mechanisms relating social status and weight. This was a pilot feasibility, randomized, crossover study in Hispanic young adults (n=9; age 19-25; 67% female; BMI ≥18.5 and ≤30kg/m(2)). At visit 1, participants consumed a standardized breakfast and were randomized to a high social status position (HIGH) or low social status position (LOW) in a rigged game of Monopoly™. The rules for the game differed substantially in terms of degree of 'privilege' depending on randomization to HIGH or LOW. Following Monopoly™, participants were given an ad libitum buffet meal and energy intakes (kcal) were estimated by pre- and post-weighing foods consumed. Stress-related markers were measured at baseline, after the game of Monopoly™, and after lunch. Visit 2 used the same standardized protocol; however, participants were exposed to the opposite social status condition. When compared to HIGH, participants in LOW consumed 130 more calories (p=0.07) and a significantly higher proportion of their daily calorie needs in the ad libitum buffet meal (39% in LOW versus 31% in HIGH; p=0.04). In LOW, participants reported decreased feelings of pride and powerfulness following Monopoly™ (p=0.05) and after their lunch meal (p=0.08). Relative to HIGH, participants in LOW demonstrated higher heart rates following Monopoly™ (p=0.06), but this relationship was not significant once lunch was consumed (p=0.31). Our pilot data suggest a possible causal relationship between experimentally manipulated low social status and increased acute energy intakes in Hispanic young adults, potentially influenced by decreased feelings of pride and powerfulness. Increased energy intake over time, resulting in positive energy balance, could contribute to increased risk for obesity, which could partially explain the observed relationship between low social standing and higher weight. Larger and longitudinal studies in a diverse sample need to be conducted to confirm findings, increase generalizability, and assess whether this relationship persists over time.

Rhizoctonia solani Anastomosis Group 3 is Predominant in Potato Tubers in Poland.

Rhizoctonia solani is a species complex of 13 related but genetically distinct anastomosis groups (AGs). In potato, R. solani can infect the stems, stolons, and roots, resulting in quantitative losses. It can also cause qualitative losses through blemishes occurring on progeny tubers, such as black scurf and elephant hide (corky cracking). Knowledge of the AG in local populations is important because they differ in host range, fungicide sensitivity, and disease severity (2). To determine the AGs present in Poland, 54 tuber samples displaying typical R. solani symptoms were taken from six different fields in 2011. The fields were representative of five different administrative regions of Poland and from at least 10 different varieties. Rhizoctonia was isolated from tubers by placing symptomatic material on to tap water agar amended with streptomycin and penicillin and after 2 to 3 days Rhizoctonia colonies were identified and hyphal tips of these transferred to potato dextrose agar. Rhizoctonia was successfully isolated from 48 tubers displaying black scurf and two tubers displaying elephant hide symptoms. DNA was extracted from Rhizoctonia cultures using a Wizard Food kit (Promega) and the AG was determined using specific real-time PCR assays (1). All Rhizoctonia isolates were determined to be AG3 and this was confirmed for 10 selected isolates by observing hyphal fusion with a known AG3 tester isolate (Rs08) as described previously (3). Pairings were also conducted amongst the 10 Polish isolates, C2 reactions were typically observed indicating numerous vegetative compatible groups are present. This study shows that AG3 is likely to be the predominant AG in potato tubers in Poland. This is similar to other studies in Europe, which have all determined that AG3 accounts for at least 92% of isolates from potato (2,3). AG2-1, 4, and 5 have also been found in tubers worldwide and climate and certain crop rotations can influence the presence of these other AGs in potato tubers (2). However, climate and crop rotations in Poland are similar to other parts of Europe so the predominance of AG3 is expected. AG3 was also isolated from elephant hide symptoms; however, it was more frequently isolated from sclerotia. The ability of AG3 to prolifically produce sclerotia and thereby survive on seed tubers may explain its predominance in potato crops (4). Therefore, studies focusing on the management of Rhizoctonia potato disease in Poland should consider AG3 in the first instance. References: (1) G. E. Budge et al. Plant Pathol. 58:1071, 2009. (2) L. Tsror. J. Phytopathol. 158:649, 2010. (3) J. W. Woodhall et al. Plant Pathol. 56:286, 2007. (4) J. W. Woodhall et al. Plant Pathol. 57:5, 2008.

First Report of Rhizoctonia solani AG2-2IIIB Infecting Potato Stems and Stolons in the United States.

Rhizoctonia solani is an important pathogen of potato (Solanum tuberosum) causing qualitative and quantitative losses. It has been associated with black scurf and stem canker. Isolates of the fungus are assigned to one of 13 known anastomosis groups (AGs), of which AG3 is most commonly associated with potato disease (2,4). In August 2011, diseased potato plants originating from Rupert, ID (cv. Western Russet) and Three Rivers, MI (cv. Russet Norkotah) were received for diagnosis. Both samples displayed stem and stolon lesions typically associated with Rhizoctonia stem canker. The presence of R. solani was confirmed through isolation as previously described (4) and the Idaho and Michigan isolates were designated J11 and J8, respectively. AG was determined by sequencing the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region using primers ITS5 and ITS4 (3). The resulting sequences of the rDNA ITS region of isolates J8 and J11 (GenBank Accession Nos. HE608839 and HE608840, respectively) were between 97 and 100% identical to that of other AG2-2IIIB isolates present in sequence databases (GenBank Accession Nos. FJ492075 and FJ492170, respectively). Koch's postulates were confirmed for each isolate by carrying out the following protocol. Each isolate was cultured on potato dextrose agar for 14 days. Five 10-mm agar plugs were then placed on top of seed tubers (cv. Maris Piper) in 1-liter pots containing John Innes Number 3 compost (John Innes Manufacturers Association, Reading, UK). Pots were held in a controlled environment room at 18°C with 50% relative humidity and watered as required. After 21 days, plants were removed and assessed for disease. Typical Rhizoctonia stem lesions were observed and R. solani was successfully reisolated from symptomatic material. To our knowledge, this is the first report of AG2-2IIIB causing disease on potatoes in the United States. In the United States, AGs 2-1, 3, 4, 5, and 9 have all been previously implicated in Rhizoctonia potato disease (2). AG2-2IIIB should now also be considered a potato pathogen in the United States. Knowledge of which AG is present is invaluable when considering a disease management strategy. AG2-2IIIB is a causal agent of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) root rot in Idaho (1). Sugar beet is commonly grown in crop rotation with potato and such a rotation could increase the risk of soilborne infection to either crop by AG2-2IIIB. References: (1) C. A. Strausbaugh et al. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 33:210, 2011. (2) L. Tsror. J. Phytopatol. 158:649, 2010. (3) T. J. White et al. Page 315 in: PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. M. A. Innis et al., eds. Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1990. (4) J. W.Woodhall et al. Plant Pathol. 56:286, 2007.

First Report of Rhizoctonia solani AG4 HG-II Infecting Potato Stems in Idaho.

The fungus Rhizoctonia solani is the causal agent of stem canker and black scurf of potato (Solanum tuberosum). R. solani is a species complex consisting of 13 anastomosis groups (AGs) designated AG1 to 13 (2, 3). Stems of potato (cv. Russet Norkotah) with brown lesions were recovered from one field in Kimberley, Idaho, in August 2011. Using previously described methods (3), R. solani was recovered from the symptomatic stems and one representative isolate (J15) was selected for further characterization. Sequencing of the rDNA ITS region of isolate J15 was undertaken as previously described (3) and the resulting rDNA ITS sequence (HE667745) was 99% identical to sequences of other AG4 HG-II isolates in GenBank (AF354072 and AF354074). Pathogenicity of the isolate was determined by conducting the following experiment. Mini-tubers of cv. Santé were planted individually in 1-liter pots containing John Innes Number 3 compost (John Innes Manufacturers Association, Reading, UK). Pots were either inoculated with J15, an isolate of AG3-PT (Rs08), or were not inoculated. Each treatment was replicated four times. Inoculum consisted of five 10-mm-diameter potato dextrose agar plugs, fully colonized by the appropriate isolate, placed in the compost approximately 40 mm above each seed tuber. Pots were held in a controlled environment room at 21°C with 50% relative humidity and watered as required. After 21 days, plants were assessed for disease. No symptoms of the disease were present in non-inoculated plants. In the Rs08 (AG3-PT) inoculated plants, all stems displayed large brown lesions and 20% of the stems had been killed. No stem death was observed in J15 (AG4 HG-II) inoculated plants. However, brown lesions were observed in three of the four J15 (AG4 HG-II) inoculated plants. These lesions were less severe than in plants inoculated with the Rs08(AG3-PT) inoculated plants and were present in 40% of the main stems. In the J15 (AG4 HG-II) inoculated pots, R. solani AG4 HG-II was reisolated from the five symptomatic stems, thereby satisfying Koch's postulates. To our knowledge, this is the first report of AG4 HG-II causing disease on potatoes in Idaho. AG4 has been isolated from potato previously from North Dakota, although the subgroup was not identified (1). The only previous report where AG4 HG-II was specifically determined to cause disease on potato was in Finland, but the isolate could not be maintained and Koch's postulates were not completed (3). The present study shows that AG4 HG-II can cause stem disease in potatoes, although disease does not develop as severely or as consistently as for AG3-PT. However, as demonstrated with isolates of AG2-1 and AG5, even mild stem infection can reduce tuber yield by as much as 12% (4). AG4 HG-II is a pathogen of sugar beet in Idaho, which was grown previously in this field. This history may have contributed to high levels of soilborne inoculum required to produce disease on potato. References: (1) N. C. Gudmestad et al. Page 247 in: J. Vos et al. eds. Effects of Crop Rotation on Potato Production in the Temperate Zones. Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1989. (2) M. J. Lehtonen et al. Agric. Food Sci. 18:223, 2009. (3) J. W. Woodhall et al. Plant Pathol. 56:286, 2007. (4) J. W. Woodhall et al. Plant Pathol. 57:897, 2008.

Multimodal transcranial magnetic stimulation: using concurrent neuroimaging to reveal the neural network dynamics of noninvasive brain stimulation.

Since its introduction in the 1980s, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) has proven to be a versatile method to non-invasively study human brain function by reversibly altering ongoing neural processing. In addition, TMS has been explored as a therapeutic intervention in a number of neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions. However, our understanding of TMS-induced changes in neural activity patterns is still rather limited, particularly when it comes to changes in neural network dynamics beyond the cortical site directly targeted by TMS. In order to monitor both its local and remote neurophysiological effects, TMS has been combined with complementary neuroimaging methods that allow additional insights into how observed TMS effects at the behavioral level can be interpreted by taking into account the full scale of its impact throughout the brain. The current review provides a comprehensive overview of the existing multimodal TMS literature, covering studies in which TMS was combined with one of the three main neuroimaging modalities, namely Electroencephalography, Positron Emission Tomography, and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Besides constituting a reflection of the status quo in this exciting multidisciplinary research field, this review additionally reveals both convergent and divergent observations across modalities that await corroboration or resolution, thereby further guiding ongoing basic research and providing useful constraints to optimize future clinical applications.

Effect of dietary organic and inorganic micromineral source and level on sow body, liver, colostrum, mature milk, and progeny mineral compositions over six parities.

A sow study evaluated the effects of 2 dietary micromineral sources (organic or inorganic) and 3 dietary mineral levels [NRC, industry (IND), and IND + Ca:P] with selected sows killed at parities 1, 2, 4, and 6. Three sows per treatment group were killed at weaning (total = 68), and their body and liver, 72 colostrum and milk samples (17 d), 69 full-term stillborn pigs and their livers, and 32 pigs at weaning were analyzed for minerals. Tissue and milk samples from the sows were analyzed as a 2 x 3 x 4 factorial arrangement of treatments in a completely randomized design (CRD) with 3 replicates per treatment. Full-term stillborn pig mineral compositions were determined at parities 1, 3, and 5 and evaluated as a 2 x 3 x 3 factorial arrangement of treatments in a CRD with 3 replicates per treatment. Weanling pigs from parity 6 sows were analyzed as a 2 x 3 factorial in a CRD. Sow and pig mineral compositions are reported on an equivalent empty BW and kilograms of liver weight basis. The results indicated that sow body macromineral contents were not affected by dietary micromineral source or level or when the diets contained added Ca and P. Sow body Se increased when dietary organic microminerals increased from the NRC to the IND level, resulting in a source x level interaction (P < 0.01), but there was no increase in those sows fed inorganic microminerals. There were increases in Cu (P < 0.05) and Se as levels increased from NRC to the IND, and there were increases (P < 0.05) in Cu and Zn when the IND + Ca:P diet was fed compared with feeding the IND diet. Increases (P < 0.01) in sow liver Cu, Se, and Zn occurred as microminerals increased from the NRC to the IND level. As parity advanced, there were cubic increases (P < 0.01) in sow body Cu, Fe, and Se, but a quadratic increase in Zn (P < 0.05). There was no clear effect of sow dietary treatments on full-term stillborn pig or liver micromineral contents, except Se (P < 0.01). There was a greater pig body Se content when sows were fed organic microminerals at the greater level, resulting in a source x level interaction (P < 0.01). Colostrum minerals were generally not affected by diet variables, except Se. Colostrum Se was greater when sows were fed the organic micromineral source than the inorganic source at the greater level, resulting in a source x level interaction (P < 0.05). Milk Cu (P < 0.01) and Zn (P < 0.01) increased as dietary level increased. Milk Se was increased when organic Se was fed (P < 0.05) and when the micromineral level was increased (P < 0.01). Weaned pig body Fe (P < 0.01) and Se (P < 0.01) were greater when organic microminerals were fed to the sow, whereas Mn (P < 0.01) and Zn (P < 0.05) increased when the IND level was fed. These results indicate that the dietary micromineral source and level had a minimal effect on sow body and liver mineral contents or in colostrum and pigs at birth, except Se, which was greater when the organic form was fed.

Effects of dietary organic and inorganic trace mineral levels on sow reproductive performances and daily mineral intakes over six parities.

Dietary trace mineral sources and levels were fed to developing gilts to evaluate their performance responses during the growth phase, but treatments were continued into the reproductive phase in which subsequent reproductive responses were evaluated. In Exp. 1, three groups of gilts (n = 216) were used in a 2 x 2 factorial in a randomized complete block design (6 replicates) with treatment diets initially fed at 30 kg of BW. The first factor was trace mineral source (organic or inorganic), whereas the second factor evaluated dietary levels. The NRC requirement was the first level evaluated, whereas the second level was formulated to average industry standards (IND). Organic trace minerals were mineral proteinates, whereas the inorganic minerals were provided in salt form. The results of Exp. 1 indicated that trace mineral source or level did not affect gilt growth or feed performance responses to 110 kg of BW. Experiment 2 continued with the same females but was a 2 x 3 factorial in a split-plot design using 3 groups of females over a 6-parity period and had a total of 375 farrowings. Factors in Exp. 2 were the same as in Exp. 1, except that 2 additional pens of gilts during their development had been fed the IND level trace mineral levels of both trace mineral sources. At breeding, the gilts from these 2 additional pens were continued on the same trace mineral source and level but fed greater dietary Ca and P levels (IND + Ca:P). Litters were standardized by 3 d postpartum within each farrowing. Sows fed organic trace minerals farrowed more (P < 0.05) total (12.2 vs. 11.3) and live pigs (11.3 vs. 10.6) compared with sows fed inorganic trace minerals. Sows fed the IND + Ca:P level tended to have fewer (P < 0.10) total pigs born for both trace mineral sources. Litter birth weights were heavier (P < 0.05) when sows were fed organic trace minerals, but individual piglet weights were similar. Nursing pig ADG tended to be greater (P < 0.10) when sows were fed organic trace minerals. Other sow reproductive traits (BW, feed intake, and rebreeding interval) were not affected by trace mineral source or level. Daily mineral intake increased by parity but declined when trace mineral intakes were expressed on an amount per kilogram of BW and declined during later lactations. These results suggest that feeding sows organic trace minerals may improve sow reproductive performance, but there were minimal effects on other reproductive measurements.

Effects of neonatal iron status, iron injections at birth, and weaning in young pigs from sows fed either organic or inorganic trace minerals.

Second-parity sows (n = 7) were fed diets containing organic or inorganic trace minerals, and their progeny (n = 68) were used to determine the Fe status of pigs at birth and nursing and postweaning phases. The experiment comprised 2 parts, in which the first experiment was a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement. Sow trace mineral (organic vs. inorganic) was the first factor evaluated, and the injection of Fe (0 or 200 mg) to neonatal pigs within litter was the second factor. In Exp. 2, half the pigs in each litter from each neonatal Fe injection group were injected with Fe (0 vs. 200 mg) at weaning as an added factor in a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement in a split-split-plot design. Weanling pigs were fed diets fortified with 90 mg/kg of Fe (sulfate), but the analyzed indigenous and fortified Fe content was 170 mg/kg. Pigs in both experiments were bled at periodic intervals to determine hemoglobin (Hb) concentration, percentage of hematocrit (Hct), and ceruloplasmin oxidase activity. Neonates and d-2 pigs from sows fed organic trace minerals had lower (P < 0.05) Hb concentrations compared with sows fed inorganic trace minerals, but they had similar percentages of Hct values. Blood Hb seemed to remain lower throughout the nursing period when sows were fed organic vs. inorganic Fe. Pigs without Fe injection had decreased ADG (P < 0.05) from 0 to 7 and 7 to 17 d than pigs injected with Fe. Although Hb values increased when neonatal pigs received Fe injection, they were somewhat lower when sows were fed the organic Fe. Ceruloplasmin oxidase activity was low at birth, increased to weaning in each treatment group, and was greater in pigs without Fe injection at d 13 (P < 0.05) and those from sows fed organic minerals at d 17 (P < 0.01). In Exp. 2, when the Fe-fortified diet was fed, BW and ADG responses were both greater (P < 0.01) to 28 d postweaning when neonates had received Fe injections. Neonates not injected with Fe at birth but injected at weaning had greater ADG, Hb, and Hct values, whereas pigs injected with Fe did not respond to Fe injection at weaning, which resulted in interactions (P < 0.05) in those criteria at most measurement periods. The results indicated a reduced Fe bioavailability when sows were fed the organic Fe source, but this may also have been due to the greater Fe need, lowered Fe status, or both, of the sow because of the greater number of pigs farrowed and heavier litter weights at parturition and weaning. The results also indicated that Fe injections at birth may be critical to achieving maximum pig growth response to weaning. There was no apparent advantage to injecting Fe at weaning when neonatal pigs received Fe injections.

International strategies to address obesity.

Obesity rates are increasing in most countries throughout the world. The reasons for the increase are complex and involve biological, behavioural and environmental factors. We have unintentionally created environments that encourage over-eating and discourage physical activity. Despite the recognition of the seriousness of obesity to public health, no interventions have been effective in reducing obesity rates on a population basis. Reversing obesity rates within populations will require addressing both individual behaviour and the obesogenic environment. Obesity rates could be reduced by treating affected individuals or by preventing the gradual increase in body weights of the population. Success in long-term obesity treatment is poor and appears to require that large behaviour changes be made and sustained. An alternative approach is to promote small lifestyle changes to prevent the gradual increase in the body weight of populations. America On the Move is an initiative based on promoting small lifestyle changes to prevent weight gain in the US population. This is one strategy could be used in other countries to reduce obesity rates.

Tissue weights and body composition of two genetic lines of barrows and gilts from twenty to one hundred twenty-five kilograms of body weight.

Barrows and gilts of 2 genetic lines with differing lean gain potentials (high-lean = 375 g of fat-free lean/d; low-lean = 280 g of fat-free lean/d) were used to determine tissue and organ weights and compositions from 20 to 125 kg of BW. The experiment was a 2 (genetic line) x 2 (sex) x 5 (BW) factorial arrangement of treatments in a completely randomized design conducted with 2 groups of pigs in 6 replicates (n = 120 pigs). Six pigs from each sex and genetic line were slaughtered at 20 kg of BW and at 25 kg of BW intervals to 125 kg of BW. At slaughter, the internal tissues and organs were weighed. Loin and ham muscles were dissected from the carcass and trimmed of skin and external fat, and the ham was deboned. Residuals from the loin and ham were combined with the remaining carcass. Body components were ground, and their compositions were determined. The results demonstrated that tissue weights increased (P < 0.01) as BW increased. Loin and ham muscle weights increased but at a greater rate in the high-lean line and in gilts resulting in genetic line x BW and sex x BW interactions (P < 0.01). Liver and heart expressed on a BW or a percentage of empty BW basis increased at a greater rate in the high-lean line resulting in a genetic line x BW interaction (P < 0.01). Liver and intestinal tract weights were heavier in barrows than in gilts, significant only at 45 (P < 0.05), 75 (P < 0.01), and 100 (P < 0.05) kg of BW. Loin and ham muscles from the high-lean genetic line and gilts had greater (P < 0.01) water, protein, and ash contents compared with the low-lean genetic line and barrows resulting in genetic line x BW and sex x BW interactions (P < 0.01). The remaining carcass (minus loin and ham muscles) had greater (P < 0.01) amounts of water and protein, and less (P < 0.01) fat in the high-lean genetic line and gilts. The high-lean genetic line and gilts had more total body water, protein, and ash, but less body fat, with these differences diverging as BW increased, resulting in a genetic line x BW interaction (P < 0.01). The results indicated that liver and heart weights were greater in high-lean pigs, reflecting the greater amino acid metabolism, whereas the liver and intestinal tract weights were greater in barrow than gilts, reflecting their greater feed intakes and metabolism of total nutrients consumed.

Phenotypic measurements and various indices of lean and fat tissue development in barrows and gilts of two genetic lines from twenty to one hundred twenty-five kilograms of body weight.

Two genetic lines with different lean gains were evaluated for various body measurements and indices of lean tissue in barrows and gilts from 20 to 125 kg of BW. One genetic line was identified as the low-lean line [280 g of fat-free lean (FFL)/d], and the second line was the high-lean line (375 FFL gained/d). The experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design using a 2 x 2 x 5 factorial arrangement of treatments in 6 replicates (n = 120 pigs). The 2 genetic lines and sexes were provided ad libitum access to cornsoybean mixtures that met or exceeded their required amino acid requirements for their respective lean gain potentials. Six pigs of each sex and genetic line were slaughtered initially and at 25-kg of BW intervals to 125 kg of BW. Pigs slaughtered were measured for height, width, and length using metal calipers. Backfat and LM area were measured using real-time ultrasound, with backfat depth also measured using A-mode ultrasound technology. Longissimus muscle area and back-fat thickness at the 10th rib were measured on the chilled carcass. Data was analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS, with the animal as the experimental unit. Shoulders (P < 0.05) and lumbars (P < 0.05) were wider in the low-lean genetic line and in barrows. Gilts and the high-lean genetic line had less backfat and greater LM areas than the low-lean genetic line. As BW increased, there was a greater increase in FFL tissue and lower backfat depths in the high-lean vs. the low-lean genetic line. This resulted in a greater divergence of measurement values as BW increased. Femur weight, length, and cortical wall thickness were greater in the high-lean genetic line, but the differences were not significant. The high-lean genetic line had a greater (P < 0.01) organic matrix content in the femur and less ash, resulting in a lower percentage of bone ash (P < 0.01). The results indicate that differences occurred phenotypically between pigs having more muscle (wider hams) or more fat (wider shoulder and lumbar). As BW increased, the high-lean pigs had an increase in lean tissue, particularly after 75 kg of BW, and less backfat and less bone mineralization, whereas the low-lean line pigs had increased backfat and greater bone mineralization. Real-time ultrasound measurements using various formulas to estimate lean tissue produced values close to those determined from carcass measurements at 100 and 125 kg of BW.

The role of public policy in treating the epidemic of global obesity.

Given the powerful forces promoting population weight gain, the obesity epidemic cannot be reversed solely by promoting individual behavior change. Policy initiatives might lessen the impact of the biological and economical forces promoting weight gain or provide motivation to resist these forces. Unfortunately, there is little information to adequately evaluate the many policies that have been suggested. The intent of this review is to discuss the potential use of policy to stem the global epidemic of obesity.

Effects of diet complexity and dietary lactose levels during three starter phases on postweaning pig performance.

Four experiments involving 1,005 crossbred pigs weaned at 19 +/- 2 d of age evaluated the effect of diet complexity and lactose level on starter pig performances. Experiment 1 was a randomized complete block (RCB) conducted in nine replicates with 135 pigs. A complex diet using several protein sources, a semicomplex diet with fewer protein sources, and a simple diet of corn and soybean meal comprised the three treatment groups. All diets contained 25% lactose (as-fed basis) with lysine (total) constant from d 0 to 14 (1.55%) and d 14 to 28 (1.45%), respectively. Gain, feed intake, and feed efficiency (P < 0.05) improved as diet complexity increased during both periods. In Exp. 2, 240 pigs in eight replicates in a RCB design were fed complex diets, but dietary lactose (total; as-fed basis) levels ranged from 10 to 35% in 5% increments from 0 to 14 d after weaning. From 14 to 30 d, a common 17% lactose diet was fed to evaluate the effects of early lactose level on subsequent responses. Gains (P < 0.05) increased for the 0- to 7- and 0- to 14-d periods as lactose increased to 30%. Similar gains resulted for all treatment groups from 14 to 30 d after weaning, with no evidence of compensatory responses to early lactose levels. In Exp. 3, 330 pigs were fed complex diets. From 0 to 7 d after weaning, the diets contained 25% lactose (as-fed basis), and from 7 to 21 d postweaning, the lactose levels ranged from 7 to 31% in 5% increments. Gain (P < 0.01) and feed efficiency (P < 0.05) increased from 7 to 21 d to the 17% lactose level. In Exp. 4, 300 pigs were fed 25 and 17% (as-fed basis) lactose diets from 0 to 7 and 7 to 21 d postweaning, respectively. From 21 to 35 d postweaning, lactose levels of 0 to 20% in 5% increments were added to a corn-soybean meal diet. The experiment was conducted as a RCB design in 12 replicates. Gain (P < 0.05) and feed intake (P < 0.05) increased to 10 to 15% lactose. When the data from Exp. 4 were partitioned into lighter (15.0 kg) and heavier (17.7 kg) pig weight replicates, only the lighter replicates had significant improvements in gain, feed intake, and feed efficiency (P < 0.05) in response to dietary lactose. These results demonstrated that starter pigs performed better when fed complex diets, that dietary lactose levels of 25 to 30% (to 7 kg BW) during the initial week postweaning, 15 to 20% lactose during d 7 to 21 (to 12.5 kg BW), and 10 to 15% lactose during d 21 to 35 postweaning (to 25 kg BW) resulted in maximum performance.

Long-term effects of dietary organic and inorganic selenium sources and levels on reproducing sows and their progeny.

An experiment evaluated the effects of feeding either a basal non-Se-fortified diet, two Se sources (organic or inorganic) each providing 0.15 and 0.30 ppm Se, or their combination (each providing 0.15 ppm Se) on gilt growth and sow reproductive performance. The experiment was a 2 x 2 + 2 factorial conducted in a randomized complete block design in three replicates. One hundred twenty-six crossbred gilts were started on one of the six treatment diets at 27.6 kg BW. During the grower phase, animals were bled at 30-d intervals with three gilts killed per treatment at 115 kg BW for tissue Se analysis. Fifteen gilts per treatment were bred at 8 mo of age and were continued on their treatment diets for four parities. Sow serum collected within parity was analyzed for Se and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity. Tissue Se was determined from five 0-d-old pigs per treatment from fourth-parity sows. Three sows per treatment were killed after the fourth parity for tissue Se analysis. Similar treatment performance responses occurred from 27 to 115 kg BW. Serum Se (P < 0.01) and GSH-Px activity (P < 0.05) increased for both Se sources to 0.30 ppm Se during the grower and reproductive periods. Serum Se and GSH-Px activity decreased from 70 to 110 d postcoitum in all treatment groups, but increased at weaning (P < 0.01) in the Se-fortified groups. The number of pigs born (total, live) increased (P < 0.05) with the 0.15 ppm Se level for both Se sources. Tissue and total body Se content of 0-d-old pigs increased with Se level (P < 0.01) and also when the organic Se source (P < 0.01) was fed to the sow. When sows were fed either Se source, pig serum Se (P < 0.01) and GSH-Px activity (P < 0.05) increased at weaning. Colostrum and milk Se concentrations increased (P < 0.01) with Se level for both Se sources, but were substantially greater (P < 0.01) when sows were fed organic Se. The combination of Se sources had sow milk and tissue Se values that were similar to those of sows milk and fed 0.15 ppm organic Se. The fourth-parity sows had greater tissue Se concentrations when organic Se level was increased (P < 0.01), more so than when sows were fed inorganic Se. These results suggest that both Se sources resulted in similar sow reproductive performances at 0.15 ppm Se, but sows fed the organic Se source had a greater transfer of Se to the neonate, colostrum, milk, weaned pig, and sow tissues than sows fed inorganic Se.

Consumption of a controlled low-fat diet containing olestra for 9 months improves health risk factors in conjunction with weight loss in obese men: the Ole' Study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of a standard American diet, a traditional low-fat diet, and a low-fat diet containing the fat substitute olestra on risk factors for heart disease and diabetes. DESIGN: A 9-month, double-blind, randomized, parallel-arm, feeding study comparing three diets: (1). control (33% fat), (2). fat-reduced (FR; 25% fat), and (3). fat-substituted (FS) where olestra replaced 1/3 of dietary fat (33% lipid and 25% digestible fat). Subjects were allowed to adjust their total energy intake as desired, allowing weight to fluctuate. SUBJECTS: A total of 37 healthy, obese men (age 36.7+/-1.3 y; body mass index 30.8+/-0.4 kg/m(2)). MEASUREMENTS: Body weight and composition by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, blood pressure, serum lipids, lipoproteins, hemostatic factors, glucose, insulin, and leptin at baseline and every 3 months. RESULTS: The FS group lost 6.27 kg of body weight by 9 months vs 4.0 kg in the control and 1.79 kg in the FR groups. There was a significant diet main effect on cholesterol (P=0.002), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P=0.003), and triglycerides (P=0.01), all of which decreased in the FS group but not the other groups by 9 months. Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) increased in the FR and control groups but was unchanged in the FS group (diet main effect P=0.04). High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increased in all groups over 9 months (time main effect P=0.0001). Time main effects were also observed for cholesterol, ApoA1, ApoB, Factor VII, diastolic blood pressure, and glucose. After adjustment for % fat loss at 9 months, the effects of diet on change in risk factors remained significant only for triglycerides. DISCUSSION: Consumption of a low-fat diet containing olestra for 9 months produced significant improvement in cardiovascular risk factors, an effect largely explained by weight loss. Long-term low-fat diet consumption with or without olestra does not decrease HDL cholesterol.