Exercise and Acute Affect.

The study of the affective impact of physical activity and exercise has a long and fraught history. In this chapter we outline some of the longstanding issues, in the hopes that research moving forward will be more mindful of these. Included are: (a) what we are actually trying to assess; (b) measurement issues; (c) the timing of affective measurement; (d) research that highlights what we know and don't know; and (e) suggestions for moving forward.

Enjoyment and Affective Responses to Moderate and High-Intensity Exercise: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Individuals with Subsyndromal PTSD.

This crossover randomized controlled trial examined the acute psychological effects of a bout of moderate-intensity continuous aerobic exercise (MICE) and a bout of high-intensity functional exercise (HIFE), relative to a no-exercise sedentary control (SED), in participants (N = 21; 15 f; 24.7 ± 9.3 years) with subsyndromal post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Affective state (Energy, Tiredness, Tension, Calmness) was assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post 0), 20-min after (Post 20), and 40-min after (Post 40) each condition. Affective valence was assessed during each condition, and exercise enjoyment was assessed at Post 0. Enjoyment was significantly greater following HIFE and MICE relative to SED. Energy was significantly increased Post 0 HIFE and MICE but decreased Post 0 SED. Tension was reduced following all conditions and was significantly lower at Post 40 relative to Pre for HIFE, MICE, and SED. Tiredness was significantly reduced at Post 40 relative to Pre following MICE only, while Calmness was significantly lower at Post 40 relative to Pre following MICE and SED. Overall, both exercise conditions were enjoyed to a greater extent than the control, but MICE may provide greater psychological benefits with respect to Calmness and Tiredness. This study is among the first to assess acute changes in affective states relative to various exercise modes in individuals living with subsyndromal PTSD.

Sex-specific associations between self-reported physical activity and PTSD among survivors of sexual violence.

This study examined sex-specific associations between sexual violence (SV) type and physical activity, and identified associations between PTSD symptoms and physical activity, all among cisgender men and women survivors of SV. Cross-sectional data from men (n = 197) and women (n = 356) survivors of SV were analyzed with stratified (men; women) hierarchical logistic regressions. Additionally, fully adjusted models for the total sample included interaction terms to further assess whether associations between SV type as well as PTSD symptoms (sum, clusters) and physical activity differed significantly by sex. Sexual assault was negatively associated with physical activity in the crude model among women (ORs: 0.58; p < 0.05). Harassment was positively associated with physical activity in the crude and adjusted models (ORs:1.92-2.16; ps<0.05) among women. Among men, there were no significant relationships. Regarding PTSD symptoms among women, crude and adjusted stratified models identified significant positive relationships with intrusion (ORs: 1.18-1.22; ps<0.05). Crude and adjusted models revealed significant positive relationships between avoidance and activity (ORs:1.38-1.41; ps<0.05) among men but not women. The interaction term for this difference in the association between avoidance and physical activity by sex was significant (OR: 0.65; 95%CI: 0.48-0.88; p < 0.01). Overall, findings provide evidence for sex-specific associations between SV and physical activity.

Perceived Barriers and Benefits of Exercise Among Men with Histories of Sexual Violence: Impact of PTSD and Physical Activity Status.

This study reported on perceived benefits and barriers of exercise among men with histories of sexual violence (SV) and compared these perceptions by activity level and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) status. An online, cross-sectional, survey of men with histories of SV (N = 198) was completed using Amazon Mechanical Turk. Inclusion criteria were identifying sex at birth as male, age between 18 and 65 years, self-reported history of SV, and living in the United States (U.S.). A total of 1,260 men were screened for the study, of which 316 met the inclusion criteria, and 198 met all data quality requirements and were included in the study. Sociodemographic information, exercise behavior, PTSD symptoms, and perceived exercise barriers/benefits were collected. Comparisons by activity and PTSD status were analyzed. Additionally, two open-ended qualitative research questions were included to provide nuance to perceived barriers/benefits of exercise. The most salient benefits included physical performance, psychological outlook, and preventative health. Open-ended responses also noted the mental and physical benefits of exercise. The most salient barrier was physical exercise, with open-ended responses emphasizing lack of time, chronic pain and health concerns, and poor mental health and lack of motivation as impediments to exercise. Significant differences were found in benefits (psychological outlook, physical performance) and barriers (exercise environment, high time expenditure, and family discouragement) between active and insufficiently active men with histories of SV (ps < .05; Cohen's ds = 0.32-0.57). Significant differences were found by PTSD status on benefits (physical performance, social interaction, and preventative health) and barriers (exercise milieu, time expenditure, hard physical exercise, family discouragement) (ps < .05; Cohen's ds = 0.40-1.10). Findings provide new gender-specific strategies for promoting exercise among men with histories of SV: integrating exercise physiologists into trauma recovery programs, psychoeducation, engaging friends and family members, peer-support, and building self-efficacy.

Perceived Barriers and Benefits of Exercise Among Women Survivors of Sexual Violence by Physical Activity Level and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Status.

An online, cross-sectional survey of women survivors of sexual violence (SV; N = 355) gathered information on perceived barriers and benefits of exercise, along with exercise level and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. This study reports exercise perceptions and provides comparisons by exercise level and PTSD status. Differences by exercise level were found in life enhancement, physical performance, psychological outlook, and social interaction (ps < 0.05; rs = -0.04-0.25). Differences were found by PTSD status in physical performance, social interaction, and preventative health and exercise milieu, time expenditure, and family discouragement (ps < 0.05; rs = -0.39-0.21). Findings provide new information relevant for promoting exercise among women survivors of SV.

Beta cortical oscillatory activities and their relationship to postural control in a standing balance demanding test: influence of aging.

Background: Age-related changes in the cortical control of standing balance may provide a modifiable mechanism underlying falls in older adults. Thus, this study examined the cortical response to sensory and mechanical perturbations in older adults while standing and examined the relationship between cortical activation and postural control. Methods: A cohort of community dwelling young (18-30 years, N = 10) and older adults (65-85 years, N = 11) performed the sensory organization test (SOT), motor control test (MCT), and adaptation test (ADT) while high-density electroencephalography (EEG) and center of pressure (COP) data were recorded in this cross-sectional study. Linear mixed models examined cohort differences for cortical activities, using relative beta power, and postural control performance, while Spearman correlations were used to investigate the relationship between relative beta power and COP indices in each test. Results: Under sensory manipulation, older adults demonstrated significantly higher relative beta power at all postural control-related cortical areas (p < 0.01), while under rapid mechanical perturbations, older adults demonstrated significantly higher relative beta power at central areas (p < 0.05). As task difficulty increased, young adults had increased relative beta band power while older adults demonstrated decreased relative beta power (p < 0.01). During sensory manipulation with mild mechanical perturbations, specifically in eyes open conditions, higher relative beta power at the parietal area in young adults was associated with worse postural control performance (p < 0.001). Under rapid mechanical perturbations, specifically in novel conditions, higher relative beta power at the central area in older adults was associated with longer movement latency (p < 0.05). However, poor reliability measures of cortical activity assessments were found during MCT and ADT, which limits the ability to interpret the reported results. Discussion: Cortical areas are increasingly recruited to maintain upright postural control, even though cortical resources may be limited, in older adults. Considering the limitation regarding mechanical perturbation reliability, future studies should include a larger number of repeated mechanical perturbation trials.

Impact of Military Affiliation on Exercise Perceptions Among Survivors of Sexual Violence.

INTRODUCTION: Military service members disproportionately experience sexual violence (SV) and its related health concerns. Although recent work has shown physical activity to be an effective strategy for improving physical and mental health among trauma-exposed military populations, little of this work has focused specifically on military service members with a history of SV. To address these gaps in knowledge and practice, this study identified the most salient perceived benefits/barriers of exercise among men and women survivors of SV with military affiliations. Additionally, these analyses explore willingness to engage in exercise programs, and preferences for the structure/content of these programs, among men and women survivors of SV with military affiliations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An online, cross-sectional survey of women (n = 355) and men (n = 198) survivors of SV was completed using Amazon Mechanical Turk. Inclusion criteria were men and women, age between 18 and 65 years, self-reported history of SV, and located in the United States. Information on sociodemographics and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms was collected alongside perceived barriers and benefits to exercise, willingness to engage in exercise programs, and preferences for the structure/content of these programs. Analyses were stratified by sex. Comparisons by history of military involvement (active duty military or veteran; no military involvement/civilian) were reported. RESULTS: Both military-involved men (n = 68) and women (n = 139) were more likely to prefer at-home and online exercise options when compared to civilians (Ps < .05; Cramer's Vs 0.19-0.36). Additionally, both men and women with military involvement reported strongly favoring exercising with an instructor over no instructor and preferred that this instructor identifies with their same gender (Ps < .01; Cramer's Vs 0.28-0.36). Women with military involvement also preferred shorter program durations and exercising alone or in a group online or in person, whereas men with military involvement were open to longer program durations, when compared to their civilian counterparts (Ps < .05; Cramer's Vs 0.19-0.37). Women and men with military involvement were more likely than their civilian counterparts to perceive that exercise benefits their psychological outlook and social interactions. They were also more likely than civilians to indicate poor exercise environment, high time expenditure, and family discouragement as perceived barriers to exercise (Ps < .05; Cohen's ds 0.21-0.97). Military-involved women were also more likely than civilian women to endorse the perceived barrier of hard physical exercise (P < .05; Cohen's d = 0.25). CONCLUSIONS: This study identified perceived benefits and barriers to exercise, along with willingness to engage in exercise programs, and exercise preferences among men and women survivors of SV with military involvement. Targeting these factors in intervention planning will be important for physical activity promotion and program engagement among veterans to reduce the disproportionate impact of SV and disease burden among U.S. service members and veterans.

Cathepsin B and Muscular Strength are Independently Associated with Cognitive Control.

Although muscular strength has been linked to greater cognitive function across different cognitive domains, the mechanism(s) through which this occurs remain(s) poorly understood. Indeed, while an emerging body of literature suggests peripheral myokines released from muscular contractions may play a role in this relationship, additional research is needed to understand this link. Accordingly, this study sought to compare the influences of a particular myokine, Cathepsin B (CTSB), and muscular strength on hippocampal-dependent relational memory and cognitive control in 40 adults (age = 50.0±7.3 yrs). Overnight fasted venous blood draws were taken to assess plasma CTSB and muscular strength was assessed as maximal isokinetic strength testing using a Biodex dynamometer. Cognitive performance was assessed using a Spatial Reconstruction Task to assess relational memory and a modified Flanker task to assess cognitive control. Neuroelectric function for cognitive control was assessed using event-related potentials (ERPs) recorded during the Flanker task. Initial bivariate correlational analyses revealed that neither sex, age, lean body mass, or muscular strength was associated with CTSB. However, CTSB was inversely associated with reaction time and fractional peak latency of the P3 component of the Flanker task. Muscular strength was also inversely associated with reaction time and positively associated with relational memory performance. However, the influence of muscular strength on relational memory did not persist following adjustment for covariates. Greater circulating CTSB was selectively associated with greater cognitive control as well as faster information processing speed. These findings are the first to link circulating CTSB to both cognitive control and neuroelectric function. Future intervention studies are needed to examine the effects of changes in muscular strength, circulating myokines, and different domains of cognitive function.

Hemostatic Responses to Multiple Bouts of Firefighting Activity: Female vs. Male Differences in a High Demand, High Performance Occupation.

While the fire service has long been a male-dominated occupation, women's participation in this strenuous, high risk, high performance activity has increased in recent years. Firefighting induces significant cardiovascular strain, including hemostatic disruption; however, the effect of sex on hemostatic responses has not been investigated despite evidence that there are sex-related differences in hemostatic variables at rest and following exercise. Thus, we investigated hemostatic responses in age- and BMI-matched male and female firefighters who performed 3-4 evolutions of firefighting drills over a 3 h period. Venous blood samples were collected before and after the firefighting training drills and hemostatic variables were assessed. Firefighting significantly increased platelet count and factor VIII, tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) antigen, and t-PA activity, and decreased activated partial thromboplastin time and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) activity. Females had lower values for epinephrine-induced platelet closure time, antithrombin III, PAI-1 activity, and PAI-1 antigen. There were no interactions between sex and time for any variables assessed. In conclusion, multiple bouts of firefighting activity resulted in a procoagulatory state. Although there were sex differences for several hemostatic variables, male and female firefighters did not differ in their hemostatic response to multiple bouts of firefighting.

High Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) Improves Fitness in Recruit Firefighters.

BACKGROUND: Firefighting is a strenuous profession requiring adequate levels of fitness for effective job performance. Providing firefighters with a safe and effective fitness program is essential for optimal performance. The purpose of this project was to examine changes in various parameters of physical fitness and firefighter ability following a 7-week high intensity functional training (HIFT) program. METHODS: Participants were male firefighter recruits (N = 89; age = 27.1 ± 4.2 years, height = 1.78 ± 0.1 m, BMI = 28.1 ± 4.2) enrolled in a Basic Operations Firefighter Academy. Fitness and firefighting ability (via the Academy Firefighter Challenge) were assessed at Weeks 1 and 7 of the Academy. RESULTS: Significant improvements in both fitness and firefighter ability were seen following the HIFT program. Specifically, fitness (BMI, cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance) improved significantly [Hotelling's T2 = 8.98, F(5, 84) = 150.92, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.90]. Firefighter ability also improved significantly [Hotelling's T2 = 3.95, F(7, 88) = 46.26, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.80]. CONCLUSIONS: Following a 7-week Basic Operations Firefighter Academy that included daily HIFT, significant increases in fitness and firefighting ability were observed. These findings suggest that HIFT appears to be an effective means of improving fitness and firefighting ability in recruit firefighters.

Fitness Fights Fires: Exploring the Relationship between Physical Fitness and Firefighter Ability.

Background: Regular exercise in firefighters may be effective in preventing or attenuating ill health (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, and obesity), as well as improving their firefighting ability. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between physical fitness and firefighting ability. Methods: Male firefighter recruits' (n = 89; age = 27.1 ± 4.2 yrs) physical fitness and firefighting ability were assessed at Week 1 and Week 7 during a basic firefighting training academy. Physical fitness was assessed via 1.5 mile run time, sit-up and push-up repetitions, the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) bench press test, vertical jump height, and sit-and-reach flexibility, while firefighting ability was assessed via completion time on a firefighting skills test. Results: Fitness predicted significant variance in firefighting ability at Week 1 (R2= 0.46; p < 0.01) and Week 7 (R2 = 0.46; p < 0.01), after accounting for age and body mass index. Cardiovascular endurance accounted for 22.4% (FΔ (1, 85) = 25.75) and 39.3% (FΔ (1, 85) = 55.53) while muscular endurance accounted for an additional 19.0% (FΔ (3, 82) = 10.34) and 6.3% (FΔ (3, 82) = 3.2) unique variance in firefighting ability at Week 1 and Week 7, respectively. Conclusions: Given the strong association between fitness and firefighting performance, municipal departments may want to focus on increasing fitness levels among firefighters.

Physical activity and sleep: An updated umbrella review of the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee report.

Physical activity (PA) is widely considered to improve sleep, but a comprehensive review of the research on this topic has not been performed. In this umbrella review, conducted initially for the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Advisory Committee and updated to reflect more recent research, we examined whether PA enhances sleep outcomes across the lifespan as well as among individuals with sleep disorders. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were utilized to assess the evidence. We also examined dose-response considerations and whether the association between PA and sleep was moderated by various factors (e.g., timing, sociodemographic characteristics). We found strong evidence that both acute bouts of PA and regular PA improved sleep outcomes. Moderate evidence indicated that longer bouts of PA (both acute and regular) improved sleep, and that the effects of PA on sleep outcomes were generally preserved across adult age groups and sex. Finally, moderate evidence demonstrated that PA improved sleep in adults with insomnia symptoms or obstructive sleep apnea. Several important areas in need of future research were also identified. Overall, the review supported the claim that PA improves sleep, but highlighted gaps that need to be addressed to facilitate more widespread utilization of PA for improving sleep.

A systematic review of physical activity and quality of life and well-being.

Maintaining or improving quality of life (QoL) and well-being is a universal goal across the lifespan. Being physically active has been suggested as one way to enhance QoL and well-being. In this systematic review, conducted in part for the 2018 U.S. Health and Human Services Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Scientific Advisory Committee Report, we examined the relationship between physical activity (PA) and QoL and well-being experienced by the general population across the lifespan and by persons with psychiatric and neurologic conditions. Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and pooled analyses from 2006 to 2018 were used for the evidence base. Strong evidence (predominantly from randomized controlled trials [RCTs]) demonstrated that, for adults aged 18-65 years and older adults (primarily 65 years and older), PA improves QoL and well-being when compared with minimal or no-treatment controls. Moderate evidence indicated that PA improves QoL and well-being in individuals with schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease, and limited evidence indicated that PA improves QoL and well-being for youth and for adults with major clinical depression or bipolar disorder. Insufficient evidence existed for individuals with dementia because of a small number of studies with mixed results. Future high-quality research designs should include RCTs involving longer interventions testing different modes and intensities of PA in diverse populations of healthy people and individuals with cognitive (e.g., dementia) and mental health conditions (e.g., schizophrenia) to precisely characterize the effects of different forms of PA on aspects of QoL and well-being.

Of Sound Mind and Body: Exploring the Diet-Strength Interaction in Healthy Aging.

Strength is a vital component of healthy aging. However, "strength" comes in different forms (includes both physical and mental aspects) and can look different at various phases of adult life. Healthy eating and regular exercise are clearly important pillars for strength. This paper proposes a framework that underlines the value of protein foods and resistance exercise for aging strong.

Resistance Exercise-induced Regulation of Muscle Protein Synthesis to Intraset Rest.

During a traditional set configuration of resistance exercise (TRD), characterized by a continuous completion of repetitions, a decrease in power output tends to occur throughout a set of repetitions. Inclusion of intraset rest, otherwise known as a cluster set configuration (CLU), counteracts this power decline. However, the effect of a CLU configuration on postexercise myofibrillar protein synthesis rates (MPS) and anabolic signaling has not been investigated. PURPOSE: We aimed to determine if any mechanistic differences exist between TRD and CLU signaling events associated with muscle anabolism. METHODS: In randomized crossover trials, eight resistance-trained participants (23 ± 1 yr, 81 ± 4.7 kg, body fat: 18% ± 1.9%; 1 repetition maximum [1RM], 150 ± 9.1 kg) performed an acute bout of CLU (4 sets × (2 × 5) repetitions, 30-s intraset rest, 90-s interset rest) and TRD (4 sets × 10 repetitions, 120-s interset rest) barbell back squats at approximately 70% 1RM with total volume load equated during primed continuous L-[ring-C6]phenylalanine infusions. Blood and muscle biopsy samples were collected at rest and after exercise at 0, 2, and 5 h. RESULTS: There was no difference in postexercise MPS between the CLU and TRD condition (P > 0.05) and no changes in phosphorylation of mTORC1 downstream targets (p70S6K and 4EBP1). Total and phosphorylated yes-associated protein on Ser127 transiently increased (P < 0.01) immediately after exercise (t = 0) in CLU (~2.1-fold) and TRD condition (~2.2-fold). CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that CLU is a viable anabolic option by preserving power output with similar MPS stimulation when compared with the TRD condition in trained young adults.

The effects of acute yoga on anxiety symptoms in response to a carbon dioxide inhalation task in women.

PURPOSE: We investigated the efficacy of yoga for improving cognitive and physical anxiety symptoms, and its possible respiratory mechanism, in high-anxious women. METHODS: Eighteen participants completed 40 min of guided yoga and a light stretching protocol in a randomized, counterbalanced order.The 7.5%CO2-inhalation task was administered before, immediately after and 1 h after the experimental conditions.State anxiety and panic were measured before and after each inhalation task.Tidal volume, ventilation and respiratory rate were measured during every 7.5%CO2-inhalation tasks. RESULTS: There was no significant 3-way interaction(p > .05).There was a significant main effect of CO2-inhalation task on panic and respiratory measures(p < .05).When collapsed over inhalation task and condition, there was a small reduction in cognitive anxiety from baseline to immediately post and 1 -h post-condition(p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: There appears to be an overall effect of general physical activity for attenuating anxiety cognitions irrespective of the physiological changes, indicating possible dissociation between the cognitive and physical symptoms of anxiety among women with anxiety sensitivity.

Physical Activity, Cognition, and Brain Outcomes: A Review of the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines.

PURPOSE: Physical activity (PA) is known to improve cognitive and brain function, but debate continues regarding the consistency and magnitude of its effects, populations and cognitive domains most affected, and parameters necessary to achieve the greatest improvements (e.g., dose). METHODS: In this umbrella review conducted in part for the 2018 Health and Human Services Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Advisory Committee, we examined whether PA interventions enhance cognitive and brain outcomes across the life span, as well as in populations experiencing cognitive dysfunction (e.g., schizophrenia). Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and pooled analyses were used. We further examined whether engaging in greater amounts of PA is associated with a reduced risk of developing cognitive impairment and dementia in late adulthood. RESULTS: Moderate evidence from randomized controlled trials indicates an association between moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA and improvements in cognition, including performance on academic achievement and neuropsychological tests, such as those measuring processing speed, memory, and executive function. Strong evidence demonstrates that acute bouts of moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA have transient benefits for cognition during the postrecovery period after exercise. Strong evidence demonstrates that greater amounts of PA are associated with a reduced risk of developing cognitive impairment, including Alzheimer's disease. The strength of the findings varies across the life span and in individuals with medical conditions influencing cognition. CONCLUSIONS: There is moderate-to-strong support that PA benefits cognitive functioning during early and late periods of the life span and in certain populations characterized by cognitive deficits.

Individual differences influence exercise behavior: how personality, motivation, and behavioral regulation vary among exercise mode preferences.

Personality traits, participatory motives, and behavior regulation have been linked to physical activity engagement. It is possible that these dimensions are associated with the type of physical activity one chooses to engage. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine individual differences in those participating in various primary modes of physical activity (PMA) and determine which individual differences are predictive of exercise frequency. METHODS: 403 adults (36.3 ± 11.6 yrs, 35.5% male) completed an online survey. The survey included questions related to their PMA, items for the Big Five Inventory (BFI), Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI-2), and the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-3). PMAs were divided into 5 main groups: CrossFit® Training (n = 89), Group Exercise (n = 59), Aerobic Training (n = 97), Resistance Training (n = 127), and Sport (n = 31). RESULTS: A multivariate ANOVA revealed significant differences in exercise motivation [p s ≤ .001, η 2 p = .05 - .22] and behavior regulation [p s ≤ .05, η 2 p = .03 - .06] between PMAs, but personality dimensions did not differ. A linear regression revealed that differences in motivation and regulation explained 17.1% (p = .001) variance in exercise behavior. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the notion that individual differences exist between motivational dimensions and individuals' preference to engage in a particular physical activity mode. Further, these differences in motivation influence physical activity engagement (i.e., frequency).

High Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) and competitions: How motives differ by length of participation.

High Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) is a unique fitness method that promotes an active lifestyle and has seen exponential and continual growth over the last two decades. Motivation to exercise is likely to change over time as individuals' motives to initiate exercise may be different than those which motivate them to maintain an exercise program. The purpose of this study was to examine the motivational factors reported by individuals who actively engage in HIFT with varying length of participation and competition levels. 737 adults (32.4 ± 8.2 years) with more than three-months of HIFT experience completed an online version of the Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI-2) survey. Those who had greater length of participation reported more motives associated with relatedness (i.e., affiliation, competition) and enjoyment, while those with less HIFT participation were more motivated by body-related variables (i.e., weight management). Further, motivational variables (e.g., social recognition, affiliation, challenge) varied depending on whether or not individuals had competed in an online qualifier. Understanding these differences in motivation may aid in exercise promotion, initiation, and adherence, and moreover promote long-term physical and mental health benefits.