Spasticity Management Teams, Evaluations, and Tools: A Canadian Cross-Sectional Survey.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to determine the physical evaluations and assessment tools used by a group of Canadian healthcare professionals treating adults with spasticity. METHODS: A cross-sectional web-based 19-question survey was developed to determine the types of physical evaluations, tone-related impairment measurements, and assessment tools used in the management of adults with spasticity. The survey was distributed to healthcare professionals from the Canadian Advances in Neuro-Orthopedics for Spasticity Congress database. RESULTS: Eighty study participants (61 physiatrists and 19 other healthcare professionals) completed the survey and were included. Nearly half (46.3%, 37/80) of the participants reported having an inter- or trans-disciplinary team managing individuals with spasticity. Visual observation of movement, available range of motion determination, tone during velocity-dependent passive range of motion looking for a spastic catch, spasticity, and clonus, and evaluation of gait were the most frequently used physical evaluations. The most frequently used spasticity tools were the Modified Ashworth Scale, goniometer, and Goal Attainment Scale. Results were similar in brain- and spinal cord-predominant etiologies. To evaluate goals, qualitative description was used most (37.5%). CONCLUSION: Our findings provide a better understanding of the spasticity management landscape in Canada with respect to staffing, physical evaluations, and outcome measurements used in clinical practice. For all etiologies of spasticity, visual observation of patient movement, Modified Ashworth Scale, and qualitative goal outcomes descriptions were most commonly used to guide treatment and optimize outcomes. Understanding the current practice of spasticity assessment will help provide guidance for clinical evaluation and management of spasticity.

Feasibility and Safety of a Powered Exoskeleton for Balance Training for People Living with Multiple Sclerosis: A Single-Group Preliminary Study (Rapper III).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility, usability, safety, and potential health benefits of using an exoskeleton device for rehabilitation of people living with multiple sclerosis. DESIGN: Single-group preliminary study. SUBJECTS: Eleven adults living with multiple sclerosis, with Expanded Disability Status Scores that ranged from 6 to 7.5 (mean age (standard deviation; SD) 54.2 (11.8) years), were recruited. METHODS: Individual participants undertook a balance rehabilitation exercise programme using the Rex Rehab robotic exoskeleton device. Each participant undertook 4 × 45-60 min supervised, balance exercise sessions. Primary outcomes were: (i) the number of participants who completed the trial protocol safely, and (ii) the number and nature of adverse events reported. Secondary outcomes were: mobility; balance; spasticity; sleep; functional independence; quality of life; and device satisfaction. RESULTS: Ten out of 11 participants completed the trial protocol safely. Four adverse events were recorded (1 serious), all of which were deemed unrelated to the trial. Secondary outcomes showed allied improvements in balance, joint mobility, spasticity and quality of life. All participants found the device acceptable to use. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that it is feasible and safe to use the Rex Rehab exoskeleton device to assist with balance rehabilitation for people living with multiple sclerosis.

Acute neurophysiologic effects of botulinum toxin type A intramuscular injection on extensor digitorum brevis muscle in healthy adults.

INTRODUCTION: Anecdotal clinical experience shows that patients often indicate that their spasticity improves on the day of treatment with intramuscular botulinum injection. Previous research shows that compound motor action potentials (CMAPs) decrease 48 h post-injection. However, no studies to date have assessed the neurophysiological changes less than 48 h post-injection. METHODS: Fifteen healthy control subjects (10 F; mean age 41 ± 11 years) participated in this randomized double-blind study. We injected 10 units of either onabotulinumtoxinA or incobotulinumtoxinA in the extensor digitorum brevis (EDB) muscle, one in each foot. We performed serial CMAP assessments using nerve conduction study of the peroneal nerve at following time intervals after botulinum injection - 2, 4, 6, 24, 26, 28, 30, 48, 72 h and 6 days post-injection. We used an ANOVA with repeated measures separately for each type of toxin. RESULTS: Post-hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that there was a statistically significant decrease in the mean EDB CMAP amplitude from baseline starting at 24 h post-injection in the incobotulinumtoxinA group (p < 0.05) and 4 h post-injection in the onabotulinumtoxinA group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: We conclude that both toxin formulations tested in this study exert a significant decrease in EDB CMAP amplitude in the period of <48 h post-injection.

Practice Patterns of Physicians Using Adjunct Therapies with Botulinum Toxin Injection for Spasticity: A Canadian Multicenter Cross-Sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: Adjunct therapies are nonpharmacological treatments used with botulinum toxin (BoNT) injection that may improve spasticity outcomes. It has been suggested that physicians consider adjunct therapies as a part of comprehensive spasticity management. It is unclear which adjunct therapies are used by physicians in clinical practice. OBJECTIVE: To determine physician practice patterns and perceptions of use of adjunct therapies following BoNT injection for limb spasticity. DESIGN: Cross-sectional national survey of current clinical practice using a 22-item questionnaire developed by the authors. SETTING: Not applicable. PARTICIPANTS: Survey respondents were physicians actively administering BoNT injections for limb spasticity management across Canada (N = 48). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Types of adjunct therapies used by physicians; physician opinions on barriers to adjunct therapy use, patient preferences, and future research priorities. RESULTS: Most physicians prescribe home stretching programs, home active exercise programs, and splinting; however, many physicians perceive that these same adjunct therapies are unwanted by patients. A minority of physicians prescribe electrical stimulation (ES), transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), casting, and extracorporeal shockwave therapy; financial limitations and perceived lack of evidence were identified as barriers to their use. Significantly more physicians practicing in academic settings compared with nonacademic, community, and private practice settings used functional ES (59% vs 11%) and TENS (41% vs 0%) as adjunct therapies (P < .05). Research priorities included determining the effectiveness of immediate postinjection application of adjunct therapies (eg, injected muscle activation with ES or stretching) and nutraceuticals. CONCLUSIONS: Canadian physicians frequently use adjunct therapies in combination with BoNT injection to treat spasticity. Financial and time constraints are identified as barriers to implementation of adjunct therapies that are currently supported by research, and patient preferences may also affect compliance. Future research should focus on adjunct therapies that overcome these barriers.

Challenges in the management of anticoagulated patients with focal spasticity.

INTRODUCTION: In patients taking warfarin, the level of anticoagulation status using the International Normalized Ratio (INR) is one consideration before botulinum toxin type-A (BoNTA) injections; however, there is wide diversity in physician approaches and preferences in using INR status and the INR cut-off values to determine suitability of anticoagulated patients for BoNTA injections. There is no standard approach for treating spasticity with BoNTA injections in patients who are on warfarin or direct anticoagulants (DOACs). OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to review the challenges in the use of BoNTA in patients who are receiving anticoagulants and to present highlights of the Canadian Delphi Study on the management of anticoagulated patients with limb spasticity. METHODS: We present a hypothetical case of a patient with focal spasticity who is also receiving anticoagulants. RESULTS: The results when injecting BoNTA in anticoagulated patients were as follows: 1) BoNTA injections should not be withheld purely because a patient is anticoagulated and other factors need to be considered. 2) A 25G (or higher) needle should be used when injecting into the deepleg compartment muscles. 3) The INR level ≤3.5 should be used when injecting the deep posterior leg compartment muscles. 4) The concern regarding bleeding when using DOACs remain the same as with warfarin when INR is in the therapeutic range. 6) The dose and scheduling of DOACs need not be altered prior to BoNTA injections. CONCLUSIONS: The Canadian consensus statements assist clinicians by providing a framework for consideration to navigate the challenges when injecting BoNTA in anticoagulated patients with spasticity.

Interrater Reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale with Standardized Movement Speeds: A Pilot Study.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to estimate the interrater reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) using consistent movement speeds guided by a metronome when measuring wrist flexor and ankle plantar flexor spasticity in patients with an upper motor neuron (UMN) lesion. The MAS has been found to have inconsistent interrater reliability for scoring the degree of spasticity. Method: This quantitative cross-sectional pilot study occurred in the outpatient spasticity clinic of a community rehabilitation hospital. Participants were a convenience sample of 20 patients with UMN lesions receiving botulinum toxin type A injections for focal spasticity. For each of the muscle groups tested, different pairs of evaluators scored spasticity on the MAS at a velocity of 130° per second. Evaluators were physical therapy students trained by an experienced physical therapist in MAS assessment. Weighted κ values were calculated to measure interrater reliability for each muscle group. Results: The weighted κ values for the wrist flexors and ankle plantar flexors were, respectively, moderate (κw = 0.54; 95% CI: 0.21, 0.87) and slight (κw = 0.08; 95% CI: -0.34, 0.50). Conclusion: Using consistent movement velocity, novice evaluators were able to score spasticity with reasonable interrater reliability when assessing the wrist flexors but not the ankle plantar flexors.

Objectif : évaluer la fiabilité interévaluateur de l'échelle modifiée d'Ashworth (ÉMA) à l'aide de vitesses de mouvement uniformes orientées par un métronome pour mesurer la spasticité des fléchisseurs du poignet et des fléchisseurs plantaires de la cheville chez les patients victimes d'une lésion des motoneurones supérieurs (MNS). Il a été établi que la fiabilité interévaluateur des MNS était inégale lors du classement du degré de spasticité. Méthodologie : la présente étude pilote transversale quantitative a eu lieu à la clinique de spasticité ambulatoire d'un hôpital de réadaptation communautaire. Les participants potentiels provenaient d'un échantillon de commodité formé de 20 patients victimes de lésions des MNS qui se faisaient injecter de la toxine botulique de type A pour soulager leur spasticité focale. Des dyades d'évaluateurs différentes ont classé la spasticité sur l'ÉMA pour chacun des groupes musculaires évalués, à une vélocité de 130 degrés à la seconde. Les évaluateurs étaient des étudiants en physiothérapie formés par un physiothérapeute chevronné dans l'évaluation de l'ÉMA. Ils ont calculé les valeurs kappa pondérées pour mesurer la fiabilité interévaluateur de chaque groupe musculaire. Résultats : les valeurs kappa pondérées des fléchisseurs du poignet et des fléchisseurs plantaires de la cheville étaient modérées (κp = 0,54; IC à 95 % : 0,21; 0,87) et modestes (κp = 0,08; IC à 95 % : −0,34; 0,50), respectivement. Conclusion : au moyen d'une vélocité de mouvement uniforme, les évaluateurs novices ont pu respecter une fiabilité interévaluateur raisonnable pour classer la spasticité des fléchisseurs du poignet, mais pas des fléchisseurs plantaires de la cheville.

Impact of Passive Leg Cycling in Persons With Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review.

Background: Passive leg cycling is an important clinical tool available for rehabilitation after spinal cord injury (SCI). Passive cycling can be used to derive exercise-related benefits in patients with poor motor control. There have been a number of studies examining the effects of passive cycling on a variety of outcomes. There is need for a systematic assessment of the cycling parameters and the associated clinical changes in cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and musculoskeletal outcomes after passive cycling. Objectives: To assess the effectiveness of passive leg cycling interventions on cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and musculoskeletal outcomes post SCI, and to describe intensity, duration, and type of passive leg cycling post SCI. Methods: PRISMA guided systematic review of literature based on searches in the following databases: PubMed/MEDLINE, PEDro, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar. Peer-reviewed publications that were written in English were included if they described the effects of a single session or multiple sessions of passive leg cycling in persons post SCI. Results: Eleven papers were included: two were randomized controlled trials (RCTs), one was a crossover trial, and the rest were pre-post single-group designs. Three studies (including two RCTs) reported statistically significant benefits of multiple sessions of passive cycling on leg blood flow velocity, spasticity, reflex excitability and joint range of motion, and markers of muscle hypertrophy. About half of the single session studies showed statistically significant improvement in acute responses. Conclusion: Multiple sessions of passive leg cycling showed benefits in three categories - cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and neurological - with medium to large effect sizes.

A Delphi-Based Consensus Statement on the Management of Anticoagulated Patients With Botulinum Toxin for Limb Spasticity.

OBJECTIVE: To create a consensus statement on the considerations for treatment of anticoagulated patients with botulinum toxin A (BoNTA) intramuscular injections for limb spasticity. DESIGN: We used the Delphi method. SETTING: A multiquestion electronic survey. PARTICIPANTS: Canadian physicians (N=39) who use BoNTA injections for spasticity management in their practice. INTERVENTIONS: After the survey was sent, there were e-mail discussions to facilitate an understanding of the issues underlying the responses. Consensus for each question was reached when agreement level was ≥75%. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Not applicable. RESULTS: When injecting BoNTA in anticoagulated patients: (1) BoNTA injections should not be withheld regardless of muscles injected; (2) a 25G or smaller size needle should be used when injecting into the deep leg compartment muscles; (3) international normalized ratio (INR) level should be ≤3.5 when injecting the deep leg compartment muscles; (4) if there are clinical concerns such as history of a fluctuating INR, recent bleeding, excessive or new bruising, then an INR value on the day of injection with point-of-care testing or within the preceding 2-3 days should be taken into consideration when injecting deep compartment muscles; (5) the concern regarding bleeding when using direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) should be the same as with warfarin (when INR is in the therapeutic range); (6) the dose and scheduling of DOACs should not be altered for the purpose of minimizing the risk of bleeding prior to BoNTA injections. CONCLUSIONS: These consensus statements provide a framework for physicians to consider when injecting BoNTA for spasticity in anticoagulated patients. These consensus statements are not strict guidelines or decision-making steps, but rather an effort to generate common understanding in the absence of evidence in the literature.

Impact of Spasticity on Balance Control during Quiet Standing in Persons after Stroke.

BACKGROUND: Balance impairments, falls, and spasticity are common after stroke, but the effect of spasticity on balance control after stroke is not well understood. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, twenty-seven participants with stroke were divided into two groups, based on ankle plantar flexor spasticity level. Fifteen individuals with high spasticity (Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) score of ≥2) and 12 individuals with low spasticity (MAS score <2) completed quiet standing trials with eyes open and closed conditions. Balance control measures included centre of pressure (COP) root mean square (RMS), COP velocity, and COP mean power frequency (MPF) in anterior-posterior and mediolateral (ML) directions. Trunk sway was estimated using a wearable inertial measurement unit to measure trunk angle, trunk velocity, and trunk velocity frequency amplitude in pitch and roll directions. RESULTS: The high spasticity group demonstrated greater ML COP velocity, trunk roll velocity, trunk roll velocity frequency amplitude at 3.7 Hz, and trunk roll velocity frequency amplitude at 4.9 Hz, particularly in the eyes closed condition (spasticity by vision interaction). ML COP MPF was greater in the high spasticity group. CONCLUSION: Individuals with high spasticity after stroke demonstrated greater impairment of balance control in the frontal plane, which was exacerbated when vision was removed.

Patterns of botulinum toxin treatment for spasticity and bleeding complications in patients with thrombotic risk.

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of compartment syndrome or major bleeding episodes and compare compartment syndrome, patient and intervention characteristics in 110 patients with stroke (treated with Warfarin, new oral anticoagulants, antiplatelet, or no anticoagulants) treated for spasticity in deep leg compartment muscles with botulinum toxin injections [onabotulinumtoxinA (n = 77); incobotulinumtoxinA (n = 33)]. We reviewed 674 injection cycles (range 1-25 cycles per patient) and found no cases of compartment syndrome in any patient groups.

Goals Set by Patients Using the ICF Model before Receiving Botulinum Injections and Their Relation to Spasticity Distribution.

Purpose: Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) is used to assess functional gains in response to treatment. Specific characteristics of the functional goals set by individuals receiving botulinum toxin type A (BoNTA) injections for spasticity management are unknown. The primary objectives of this study were to describe the characteristics of the goals set by patients before receiving BoNTA injections using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and to determine whether the pattern of spasticity distribution affected the goals set. Methods: A cross-sectional retrospective chart review was carried out in an outpatient spasticity-management clinic in Toronto. A total of 176 patients with a variety of neurological lesions attended the clinic to receive BoNTA injections and completed GAS from December 2012 to December 2013. The main outcome measures were the characteristics of the goals set by the participants on the basis of ICF categories (body functions and structures, activity and participation) and the spasticity distribution using Modified Ashworth Scale scores. Results: Of the patients, 73% set activity and participation goals, and 27% set body functions and structures goals (p<0.05). In the activity and participation category, 30% of patients set moving and walking goals, 28% set self-care and dressing goals, and 12% set changing and maintaining body position goals. In the body functions and structures category, 18% set neuromuscular and movement-related goals, and 8% set pain goals. The ICF goal categories were not related to the patterns of spasticity (upper limb vs. lower limb or unilateral vs. bilateral spasticity) or type of upper motor neuron (UMN) lesion (p>0.05). Conclusion: Our results show that patients receiving BoNTA treatment set a higher percentage of activity and participation goals than body functions and structures goals. Goal classification was not affected by type of spasticity distribution or type of UMN disorder.

Objectif : l'échelle de réalisation des objectifs (Goal Attainment Scaling ou GAS) est employée pour évaluer les gains fonctionnels en réponse à un traitement. On ne connaît pas les caractéristiques des objectifs fonctionnels établis par les personnes recevant des injections de toxine botulinique de type A (BoNTA) pour la prise en charge de la spasticité. Cette étude vise à décrire les caractéristiques des objectifs établis par les patients avant de recevoir des injections de BoNTA à l'aide de la Classification internationale du fonctionnement, du handicap et de la santé (CIF) et à déterminer si le modèle de distribution de la spasticité avait un effet sur les objectifs établis. Méthodologie : on a mené une revue rétrospective transversale des dossiers d'une clinique ambulatoire de prise en charge de la spasticité à Toronto. Au total, 176 patients ayant diverses lésions neurologiques sont venus à la clinique pour recevoir des injections de BoNTA et ont rempli la GAS entre décembre 2012 et décembre 2013. On a recensé les caractéristiques des objectifs en fonction des catégories de la CIF (fonctions organiques et structures anatomiques, activités et participation) et de la distribution de la spasticité à l'aide de l'échelle d'Ashworth modifiée. Résultats : de tous les patients, 73 % ont établi des objectifs liés aux activités et à la participation et 27 %, des objectifs liés aux fonctions organiques et aux structures anatomiques (p<0,05). Dans la catégorie des activités et de la participation, 30 % de tous les patients ont établi des objectifs par rapport à « marcher et se déplacer ¼, 28 % ont établi des objectifs par rapport aux « soins personnels ¼ et à « s'habiller ¼, et 12 %, par rapport à « modifier et maintenir sa position corporelle ¼. Dans la catégorie des fonctions organiques et des structures anatomiques, 18 % des participants ont établi des objectifs liés aux « fonctions de l'appareil locomoteur et au mouvement ¼ et 8 % ont établi des objectifs par rapport à la « douleur ¼. Les catégories d'objectifs de la CIF n'étaient pas liées aux modèles de spasticité (spasticité des membres supérieurs par rapport aux membres inférieurs ou spasticité unilatérale par rapport à bilatérale) ou au type de lésion des motoneurones supérieurs (p>0,05). Conclusion : nos résultats montrent que les patients qui reçoivent un traitement de BoNTA établissent un pourcentage plus élevé d'objectifs liés aux activités et à la participation qu'aux fonctions organiques et aux structures anatomiques. Le type de distribution de la spasticité ou le type de lésion des motoneurones n'a pas eu d'effet sur la classification des objectifs.

The impact of incline and speed of treadmill on ankle muscle activity in middle-aged adults.

OBJECTIVE: Additional demands associated with changing walking incline and speed combined with normal aging related changes in muscle recruitment can make walking difficult. This study examined the effects of walking on a treadmill at different inclines and speeds on ankle muscles in healthy middle-aged adults. METHODS: Fifteen healthy subjects (10M/5F) walked on a standard treadmill at three different inclines (0°, 3°, and 6°) and speeds (self-selected, self-selected+20%, self-selected+40%). The electromyographic activity of Medial Gastrocnemius (MG), and Tibialis anterior (TA) muscles was measured during the push off phase of the gait. RESULTS: Bilateral MG muscle activity increased when subjects walked uphill compared with level walking (p < 0.05), but no changes were seen with increasing walking speed (p > 0.05). Right MG (dominant side) activity increased at all inclines, but only at 6° on left side and also MG muscle activity was delayed on the left side at faster speed (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The bias towards using muscles in the dominant leg in middle-aged subjects to overcome challenging walking conditions may be an age-related adaptation. These results suggest that future studies in the stroke population are needed to examine the impact of hemiparesis of the dominant leg as this group of persons post-stroke may be more likely to experience greater impairment of muscle activation patterns during walking on sloped surfaces.

Functional effects of treadmill-based gait training at faster speeds in stroke survivors: a prospective, single-group study.

To examine the functional effects of walking retraining at faster than self-selected speed (SSS). Ten individuals with chronic stroke participated in a 4-week training over a treadmill at walking speeds 40% faster than SSS, three times per week, 30 min/session. Outcome measures assessed before, after, and 2 months after the end of intervention were the Timed Up and Go, the 6-Minute Walk, the 10-Meter Walk test, the Modified Ashworth Scale, SSS, and fastest comfortable speed. After 4 weeks of training, all outcome measures showed clinically meaningful and statistically significant improvements (P<0.05) that were maintained at 2 months after the end of the training. The results showed that a strategy of training at a speed 40% faster than SSS can improve functional activity in individuals with chronic stroke, with effects lasting up to 2 months after the intervention.

Effects of treadmill incline and speed on peroneus longus muscle activity in persons with chronic stroke and healthy subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of walking at different inclines and speeds on Peroneus Longus (PL) muscle activation and medial gastrocnemius (MG) coactivation with PL in healthy controls and subjects with stroke. DESIGN: Nineteen persons post-stroke (13M/6F) and fifteen healthy controls (10M/5F) walked on a treadmill at different inclines (0°, 3°, and 6°) and speeds (self-selected, self-selected+20%, self-selected+40%). The electromyographic activity of the PL and MG muscles in the stance phase of gait cycle was measured. RESULTS: The paretic PL muscle activity did not change with incline, but increased at +40% speed only (p<0.05). The nonparetic PL increased at 6° incline and at faster speeds (p<0.05). In the healthy group, PL muscle activity increased only on the right side at 6° incline, but increased bilaterally at +40% faster speed (p<0.05). The timing of PL muscle activity did not change with incline (p>0.05), but was significantly delayed at +40% faster speed on the paretic side only (p<0.05). In healthy controls, PL muscle activation timing was unchanged with incline (p>0.05), but was significantly delayed at +40% speed only on the left side (p<0.05). The MG/PL amplitude and timing ratios were not significantly different between various walking conditions (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: An increase in PL activity occurs to provide ankle stability at walking speeds up to 40% faster than the self-selected speed. Important interlimb differences which may be related to leg dominance and motor control were observed in both stroke and healthy control groups in both PL muscle timing and their clinical impact should be investigated in future studies.

The effect of water-based exercises on balance in persons post-stroke: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Water-based exercises have been used in the rehabilitation of people with stroke, but little is known about the impact of this treatment on balance. This study examined the effect of water-based exercises compared to land-based exercises on the balance of people with sub-acute stroke. METHODS: In this single-blind randomized controlled study, 32 patients with first-time stroke discharged from inpatient rehabilitation at West Park Healthcare Centre were recruited. Participants were randomized into W (water-based + land; n = 17) or L (land only; n = 15) exercise groups. Both groups attended therapy two times per week for six weeks. Initial and progression protocols for the water-based exercises (a combination of balance, stretching, and strengthening and endurance training) and land therapy (balance, strength, transfer, gait, and stair training) were devised. Outcomes included the Berg Balance Score, Community Balance and Mobility Score, Timed Up and Go Test, and 2 Minute Walk Test. RESULTS: Baseline characteristics of groups W and L were similar in age, side of stroke, time since stroke, and wait time between inpatient discharge and outpatient therapy on all four outcomes. Pooled change scores from all outcomes showed that significantly greater number of patients in the W-group showed improvement post-training compared to the L-group (p < 0.05). More patients in W-group showed change scores exceeding the published minimal detectable change scores. DISCUSSION: A combination of water- and land-based exercises has potential for improving balance. The results of this study extend the work showing benefit of water-based exercise in chronic and less-impaired stroke groups to patients with sub-acute stroke.

Effect of Botulinum Toxin on Clonus: A Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review of the literature that examined the effect of botulinum toxin type A on clonus. DATA SOURCES: A literature search of multiple databases (PubMed, Cochrane, Google Scholar, Embase) was performed to identify articles published in English in the past 30 years (1986-2016). STUDY SELECTION: Two reviewers independently applied the following inclusion criteria: (1) any adult patients older than 18 years with upper motor lesion; (2) any location and duration of clonus; and (3) subjective and objective measurements of clonus tested at least 2 weeks after botulinum toxin injection. DATA EXTRACTION: Two reviewers independently extracted the data and assessed the methodological quality. A consensus method was used to solve disagreements. DATA SYNTHESIS: The systematic review resulted in 164 articles, of which 14 met the inclusion criteria: 3 were randomized controlled trials, 1 was nonrandomized, and 6 were case series and 3 case studies. All studies (181 patients) showed improvement in clonus: 6 of 14 results were statistically significant. Different scales were used for clonus measurement, such as clonus score, patient diaries, clonus spasm score, and electromyogram duration. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, there was preliminary evidence indicating improvement in clonus after botulinum injection. The major drawback with studies reviewed here was a large variation in the type of clonus assessment tools, which also lacked validity, reliability, and sensitivity to small changes in clonus.

Shoulder Retractor Strengthening Exercise to Minimize Rhomboid Muscle Activity and Subacromial Impingement.

PURPOSE: We investigated the best position for shoulder retractor strengthening exercise to maximize middle trapezius activity and minimize rhomboid major activity. Although both trapezius and rhomboids are scapular retractors, rhomboids also act as downward rotators of the scapula, which can worsen subacromial impingement. METHODS: Twelve healthy participants (age 30 [SD 6] y) with no history of shoulder pain were recruited for this study, which used fine-wire electromyography to examine maximal muscle activation of the middle trapezius and rhomboid major muscle fibres in four different positions: with the shoulder in 90° abduction with elbow completely extended and (1) shoulder internal rotation, (2) shoulder neutral rotation, (3) shoulder external rotation, and (4) rowing (shoulder neutral rotation and elbow flexed 90°). The ratio of trapezius to rhomboid muscles was compared with Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. RESULTS: Muscle activation ratio during shoulder retraction exercise was significantly lower by 22% (i.e., rhomboid was more active than middle trapezius) when performed with the shoulder in rowing position (elbow flexed) than with the shoulder in external rotation (elbow extended) position (p=0.031). All four positions produced coactivation of trapezius and rhomboids. DISCUSSION: Rowing position may not be the best position for shoulder retractor strengthening in patients with impingement syndrome. The preferable position for maximizing middle trapezius activity and minimizing rhomboid activity may be shoulder external rotation with elbow extended.

Objet: Chercher la meilleure position pour un exercice de renforcement du rétracteur de l'épaule afin de maximiser l'activité du trapèze moyen et de réduire celle du grand rhomboïde au minimum. Même si les deux sont des rétracteurs de l'omoplate, les rhomboïdes font aussi pivoter l'omoplate vers le bas, ce qui peut aggraver la compression subacromiale. Méthodes: On a recruté 12 participants en bonne santé (âgés de 30 [ET 6] ans) sans antécédent de douleur à l'épaule pour cette étude dans le cadre de laquelle on a utilisé l'électromyographie à fil fin pour étudier l'activité maximale des fibres musculaires du trapèze moyen et du grand rhomboïde dans différentes positions: épaule en abduction à 90° avec coude en extension complète et a) rotation de l'épaule vers l'intérieur, b) rotation neutre de l'épaule, c) rotation de l'épaule vers l'extérieur d) mouvement d'aviron (rotation neutre de l'épaule et coude en flexion à 90°). On a comparé le ratio des trapèzes par rapport aux rhomboïdes au moyen du test de Wilcoxon pour observations appariées. Résultats: Le ratio d'activation musculaire au cours de l'exercice de rétraction de l'épaule était beaucoup moins élevé de 22% (c.-à-d. que le rhomboïde était plus actif que le trapèze moyen) l'épaule en position d'aviron (coude en flexion) qu'en position de rotation vers l'extérieur (coude en extension) (p=0,031). Les quatre positions ont produit une coactivation du trapèze et des rhomboïdes. Discussion: La position d'aviron n'est peut-être pas la meilleure position pour renforcer le rétracteur de l'épaule chez les patients qui ont un syndrome de pincement. La position préférée pour maximiser l'activité du trapèze moyen et réduire celle des rhomboïdes au minimum peut être la rotation vers l'extérieur, le coude en extension.