Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on the Level of Antinutrients in Pulses: A Case Study of a Fermented Faba Bean-Oat Product.

The importance of cereals and pulses in the diet is widely recognized, and consumers are seeking for ways to balance their diet with plant-based options. However, the presence of antinutritional factors reduces their nutritional value by decreasing the bioavailability of proteins and minerals. This study's aim was to select microbes and fermentation conditions to affect the nutritional value, taste, and safety of products. Single lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains that reduce the levels of antinutrients in faba bean and pea were utilized in the selection of microbes for two starter mixtures. They were studied in fermentations of a faba bean-oat mixture at two temperatures for 24, 48, and 72 h. The levels of antinutrients, including galacto-oligosaccharides and pyrimidine glycosides (vicine and convicine), were determined. Furthermore, a sensory evaluation of the fermented product was conducted. Fermentations with selected single strains and microbial mixtures showed a significant reduction in the content of antinutrients, and vicine and convicine decreased by up to 99.7% and 96.1%, respectively. Similarly, the oligosaccharides were almost completely degraded. Selected LAB mixtures were also shown to affect the product's sensory characteristics. Microbial consortia were shown to perform effectively in the fermentation of protein-rich materials, resulting in products with improved nutritional value and organoleptic properties.

Identification of Oxindoleacetic Acid Conjugates in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds by High-Resolution UHPLC-MS/MS.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has a high nutritional value and it contains a high number and high amounts of specialized metabolites. These metabolites include, for example, phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids and steroids. In addition, it is known to contain N-containing metabolites, such as betalains. Here, we report the presence and identification of 14 new oxindoleacetate conjugates in quinoa by high-resolution ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) and ultrahigh-resolution UHPLC-QOrbitrap-MS/MS. The oxindoleacetate conjugates were extracted from dried and ground quinoa seeds using either methanol/water or acetone/water (4:1, v/v) and were further concentrated into aqueous phase and analyzed by UHPLC with reverse-phase chromatography using acetonitrile and 0.1% aqueous formic acid as eluents. High-resolution hybrid LC-MS/MS techniques, including full scan MS with in-source collision, induced dissociation, and data dependent-MS2(TopN) with stepped normalized collision energies using N2 as collision gas and data-independent acquisition (MSE) using ramped collision energies and argon as collision gas enabled their analysis directly from the crude quinoa seed extract. The oxindoleacetate conjugates were found to be present in both conventional and organic farmed seeds. According to our best knowledge, this is the first time hydroxy-oxindoles have been reported in quinoa.

APOE Genotypes, Lipid Profiles, and Associated Clinical Markers in a Finnish Population with Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors.

INTRODUCTION: The APOE ε4 allele predisposes to high cholesterol and increases the risk for lifestyle-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The aim of this study was to analyse interrelationships of APOE genotypes with lipid metabolism and lifestyle factors in middle-aged Finns among whom the CVD risk factors are common. METHODS: Participants (n = 211) were analysed for APOE ε genotypes, physiological parameters, and health- and diet-related plasma markers. Lifestyle choices were determined by a questionnaire. RESULTS: APOE genotypes ε3/ε4 and ε4/ε4 (ε4 group) represented 34.1% of the participants. Genotype ε3/ε3 (ε3 group) frequency was 54.5%. Carriers of ε2 (ε2 group; ε2/ε2, ε2/ε3 and ε2/ε4) represented 11.4%; 1.9% were of the genotype ε2/ε4. LDL and total cholesterol levels were lower (p < 0.05) in the ε2 carriers than in the ε3 or ε4 groups, while the ε3 and ε4 groups did not differ. Proportions of plasma saturated fatty acids (SFAs) were higher (p < 0.01), and omega-6 fatty acids lower (p = 0.01) in the ε2 carriers compared with the ε4 group. The ε2 carriers had a higher (p < 0.05) percentage of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 and a lower (p < 0.05) percentage of 24:5n-3 and 24:6n-3 than individuals without the ε2 allele. CONCLUSIONS: The plasma fatty-acid profiles in the ε2 group were characterized by higher SFA and lower omega-6 fatty-acid proportions. Their lower cholesterol values indicated a lower risk for CVD compared with the ε4 group. A novel finding was that the ε2 carriers had different proportions of 22:4n-6, 22:5n-6, 24:5n-3, and 24:6n-3 than individuals without the ε2 allele. The significance of the differences in fatty-acid composition remains to be studied.

Predicting the Properties of Industrially Produced Oat Flours by the Characteristics of Native Oat Grains or Non-Heat-Treated Groats.

The aim of this study was to determine whether the properties of the native oat grain or non-heat-treated groats (laboratory-scale dehulling) can be used to predict the quality of the industrially produced oat flour produced from heat-treated groats. Quality properties such as the color, hectoliter weight, thousand seed weight and hull content of Finnish native grains (n = 30) were determined. Furthermore, the relationship between the properties of the native grains and the chemical composition of the raw oat materials before and after the milling process were studied. A significant relationship (p < 0.01) was observed between the thousand seed weight of the native oat groats and the chemical composition of the industrially produced oat flour. Furthermore, the protein content of the native grains measured by NIT correlated with the chemical composition of the oat flours. These results suggest that the properties of oat flour produced on an industrial scale, including heat treatment, could be predicted based on the properties of native oat grains.

Extraction optimization of bioactive compounds from ora-pro-nobis (Pereskia aculeata Miller) leaves and their in vitro antioxidant and antihemolytic activities.

Ora-pro-nobis (Pereskia aculeata Miller) is a non-conventional food plant common in Brazil. The objective of this study was to optimize the extraction of bioactive phenolic compounds from ora-pro-nobis leaves by employing solvent mixtures. Ten extracts were obtained with water, ethanol, acetone, and their binary and ternary mixtures, evaluating the chemical composition, antioxidant activity and bioactivities in vitro. The response surface methodology was applied to model the results and calculate the optimal solvent composition, which is 60% water, 40% ethanol and 0% acetone. The optimized extract is rich in phenolic compounds (64 mg GAE/g) and proteins (823 mg/g) and presents antioxidant activity (in intracellular media as well) and inhibits lipid peroxidation (32%) along with hypotonic hemolysis (H50 = 0.339%), it does not present toxicity in vitro against cancer and normal cells. This is the first report of chicoric, caffeoyl-hexaric and coumaroyl-hexaric acids and some glycosylate derivatives of flavonols in ora-pro-nobis leaves.

APOE Genotype Disclosure and Lifestyle Advice in a Randomized Intervention Study with Finnish Participants.

BACKGROUND: The APOE ε4 allele is associated with higher risks of cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer disease than ε3 and ε2. OBJECTIVES: We studied the effectiveness of dietary and lifestyle guidance and personal genetic risk information [ε4 carrier (ε4+); ε4 noncarrier (ε4-)] as motivators for a healthier lifestyle. METHODS: A total of 188 healthy Finnish volunteers (82.4% women; mean ± SD age: 51.0 ± 5.6 y; BMI: 26.0 ± 3.6 kg/m2; total cholesterol: 5.2 ± 0.9 mmol/L) participated in our randomized intervention study. The participants were genotyped for APOE and divided into intervention (INT; INTε4+, n = 33; INTε4-, n = 57) and control groups (CTRL; CTRLε4+, n = 36; CTRLε4-, n = 62). Blood samples, measured observations, and questionnaire data were obtained at baseline and at 1 and 1.5 y. INT participants received their ε4 carrier status at baseline. Monthly Internet-based guidance based on the Finnish Dietary guidelines was provided for all. RESULTS: The proportion of SFAs in plasma over time fluctuated less in INTε4+ than in the other groups (P-interaction < 0.05; primary outcome). The lifestyle guidance increased vegetable consumption from 3.5 to 3.6 portions/d, improved the dietary fat quality score by 5.3%, increased the plasma n-3 (ω-3) FA proportion by 7.3%, and decreased the consumption of high-fat/high-sugar foods from 7.3 to 6.5 portions/wk and total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations by 4.3% and 6.1%, respectively, in the entire participant population (P < 0.05; secondary outcome). Compared with the ε4- participants, ε4+ participants had 2.4% higher plasma n-6 (ω-6) FA, lower C-peptide (3.9 compared with 4.2 nmol/L × h) and sensitive C-reactive protein values, and decreased plasma malondialdehyde concentrations over time (P < 0.05; secondary outcome). CONCLUSIONS: Lifestyle guidance given to healthy Finnish participants yielded small but beneficial changes. The INTε4+ group did not seem markedly more responsive to the guidance than the other groups.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03794141.

Effect of Strain, Wood Substrate and Cold Treatment on the Yield and ß-Glucan Content of Ganoderma lucidum Fruiting Bodies.

Wood residues from forestry industries can be potential raw materials for specialty and edible mushroom production. The aim of this study was to evaluate the suitability of wood residues for the cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum originating from boreal forests. The substrates tested included sawdust and wood chips of Betula spp., Populus tremula, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris and Larix sp. The suitability of the substrates and the ability of the strains to develop fruiting bodies and produce ß-glucan were evaluated. Fruiting body formation was supported by applying two different cold shock treatments to substrate bags. The highest yields were observed with MUS192 strain and Betula spp. and P. tremula wood-based substrates. ß-Glucan content in the fruiting bodies was highest with the MUS75 and P. tremula wood-based substrate. Based on these findings, the combination of P. tremula wood residues and the MUS192 strain is proposed to enhance the yield and ß-glucan content of the fruiting bodies. A cold treatment of 5 °C is suggested to induce primordia formation and to increase fruiting probability. This is the first time that strains of G. lucidum originating from boreal forests have been compared and successfully cultivated simulating commercial indoor cultivation.

Examining Safety of Biocolourants from Fungal and Plant Sources-Examples from Cortinarius and Tapinella, Salix and Tanacetum spp. and Dyed Woollen Fabrics.

Biocolourants have been investigated as alternatives to synthetic dyes. However, natural origin per se is not a label of harmlessness and research is needed to obtain safe dyes. We studied the cytotoxicity of the extracts from fungal (Cortinarius semisanguineus, Tapinella atrotomentosa) and plant (Tanacetum vulgare, Salix phylicifolia) sources and the woollen fabrics dyed with the extracts. Cytotoxicity in vitro using hepa-1 mouse hepatoma cells for 24 h and 72 h exposure was observed as the highest tolerated dose. All biocolourants produced intensive colour on fabrics with fastness properties from moderate to good. The Salix and Cortinarius samples did not show any cytotoxic effects, whereas the Tanacetum and Tapinella samples had slightly higher test values but were not interpreted as being significantly toxic. Higher than zero values of the undyed fabrics showed the importance of examining their toxicity as well. It was found that the cytotoxicity of the samples dyed with the biocolourants did not differ significantly from the undyed wool fabric. The concentrations of dyes used in the assays were very low, imitating the dose of the user. In addition to colouring properties, natural dyes may have pharmaceutical and antibacterial properties which would enhance the interest in using them in products for added value.

Impact of enzymatic hydrolysis on the nutrients, phytochemicals and sensory properties of oil hemp seed cake (Cannabis sativa L. FINOLA variety).

Enzymatic hydrolysis of the oil hemp seed (FINOLA variety) cake and defatted hemp seed cake by SC-CO2 was carried out using Flavorpro 750 MDP and Promod 439 L enzymes, and proximate composition, proanthocyanidins, phytic acid, lignanamides and cannabinoids were determined from the separated phases. CIELAB* color parameters were measured, while trained panelists evaluated taste, color, and smell in 1-9 Hedonic scale. Ten lignanamides, seven cannabisin-type and three grossamide-type, were found, from the cannabinoids, only cannabidiolic acid was detected. Protein, fat, ash, lignanamides and proanthocyanidins remained mostly in the sediments after the hydrolysis process in the Flavorpro treated samples, while dry matter, fat and ash was released mostly to liquids in Promod treated samples. The defatting process by SC-CO2 resulted in a higher lightness and the enzymatic processing did not have effect on the color attributes. Sediments from the enzymatic treatment were tastier, with better color and smell than liquids.

Nutritional Value of Commercial Protein-Rich Plant Products.

The goal of this work was to analyze nutritional value of various minimally processed commercial products of plant protein sources such as faba bean (Vicia faba), lupin (Lupinus angustifolius), rapeseed press cake (Brassica rapa/napus subsp. Oleifera), flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum), oil hemp seed (Cannabis sativa), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Basic composition and various nutritional components like amino acids, sugars, minerals, and dietary fiber were determined. Nearly all the samples studied could be considered as good sources of essential amino acids, minerals and dietary fiber. The highest content of crude protein (over 30 g/100 g DW) was found in faba bean, blue lupin and rapeseed press cake. The total amount of essential amino acids (EAA) ranged from 25.8 g/16 g N in oil hemp hulls to 41.5 g/16 g N in pearled quinoa. All the samples studied have a nutritionally favorable composition with significant health benefit potential. Processing (dehulling or pearling) affected greatly to the contents of analyzed nutrients.

Identification and Quantification of Avenanthramides and Free and Bound Phenolic Acids in Eight Cultivars of Husked Oat ( Avena sativa L) from Finland.

Finland is the second largest oat producer in Europe. Despite the existing knowledge of phenolics in oat, there is little information on the phenolic composition of oats from Finland. The aim of the study was to investigate the concentrations of free and bound phenolic acids, as well as avenanthramides in eight Finnish cultivars of husked oat ( Avena sativa L.). Seven phenolic acids and one phenolic aldehyde were identified, including, in decreasing order of abundance: p-coumaric, ferulic, cinnamic, syringic, vanillic, 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic, and o-coumaric acids and syringaldehyde. Phenolic acids were mostly found as bound compounds. Significant varietal differences ( p < 0.05) were observed in the cumulative content of phenolic acids, with the lowest level found in cv. 'Viviana' (1202 ± 52.9 mg kg-1) and the highest in cv. 'Akseli' (1687 ± 80.2 mg kg-1). Avenanthramides (AVNs) 2a, 2p, and 2f were the most abundant. Total AVNs levels ranged from 26.7 ± 1.44 to 185 ± 12.5 mg kg-1 in cv. 'Avetron' and 'Viviana', respectively.

High variability in flavonoid contents and composition between different North-European currant (Ribes spp.) varieties.

This study provides information on the variation of anthocyanin and flavonol contents and composition in 32 black and 12 redcurrant varieties, as well as flavonol contents and composition in two green-fruited blackcurrant (green currant) and one white currant varieties conserved in a national ex situ germplasm field collection in Finland, North Europe. Flavonols were analysed as aglycones and anthocyanins as authentic compounds using HPLC methods. In blackcurrants, total anthocyanin content varied 1260-2878mg/100g dry weight and total flavonol content 43.6-89.9mg/100g dry weight. In redcurrants, the content of anthocyanins and flavonols varied 138-462mg/100g dry weight and from not detectable to 17.7mg/100g dry weight, respectively. The green currants contained flavonols 26.1 and 15.4mg/100g dry weight, while in the white variety no flavonols were detected. A positive correlation was found between the total content of anthocyanins and flavonols in both black and redcurrants. Berry size was negatively related to the flavonoid content in redcurrants but not in blackcurrants. The results revealed that some old varieties may be of particular interest when high contents or special composition of flavonoids are desired.

Determination of benzoxazinoids in wheat and rye beers by HPLC-DAD and UPLC-QTOF MS.

Phenolic compounds in beer have received considerable interest. Besides the more typical phenolic acids and flavonoids, beer contains also lesser-known compounds, such as hordatines, their agmatine precursors and other phenolamines. Current work shows that beers brewed from wheat or rye malts, in addition to barley malts, contain benzoxazinoids, a group of nitrogen containing secondary metabolites typical to wheat and rye. In this work, HPLC-DAD was used for the quantification of major benzoxazinoids in 32 wheat and four rye beers. Of the wheat beers 22 samples and all of the rye beers contained benzoxazinoids, or their breakdown products. Concentrations of DIBOA (2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one) (as aglycon) varied from 1.7 to 21.9mg/l in wheat beers and from 5.6 to 31.6mg/l in rye beers. Breakdown products BOA (benzoxazolin-2-one), found in 15 beers, and MBOA (6-methoxy-benzoxazolin-2-one), found in two beers, were measured at concentrations ranging from 2.4 to 10.7mg/l and 8.4 to 10.5mg/l, respectively. Identification of benzoxazinoids by UPLC-QTOF MS was done on selected beers. Benzoxazinoid profiles varied greatly between different wheat beers, and compared to rye beers the chemical diversity of benzoxazinoids was higher. As far as the authors know, this is the first time that other benzoxazinoids, rather than just the decomposition products BOA or MBOA, have been reported in beer. The results also show that benzoxazinoids can be present in beer glycosylated with three or four hexose units.

Milling, water uptake, and modification properties of different barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) lots in relation to grain composition and structure.

Milling properties, water uptake, and modification in malting were studied in 14 barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) lots from two consecutive crop years. In all barley lots studied, grains with lower ß-glucan and protein content and higher starch content produced finer flours upon milling. Grains with lower ß-glucan content also hydrated more rapidly during steeping. A detailed study of two cultivars from two crop years indicated that similar environmental conditions could induce a higher ß-glucan content and concentration of aggregated B hordein in the peripheral endosperm and a lower proportion of C hordein entrapped among aggregated hordeins deeper within the endosperm. These characteristics were associated with production of coarser flours during milling as well as with slower water uptake and lower modification. However, the data do not distinguish between the effect of ß-glucan content and that of hordein localization. Distribution of ß-glucan or total protein within the kernel was not linked to hydration or modification.

Polyphenol and vitamin C contents in European commercial blackcurrant juice products.

Vitamin C and polyphenol contents (anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, phenolic acids and flavonols) were analysed in commercial blackcurrant juice products purchased from various European countries (Finland, Poland, Germany, United Kingdom) using HPLC methods. The aim was to study variation between countries, as well as evaluate the intake of polyphenols from commercial juices. There was significant variation in the contents of polyphenols and vitamin C between countries. Expressed as the ready-to-drink beverages, German, Polish, Finnish and British products averaged anthocyanin contents of 38, 32, 12 and 7.5mg/2.5dl, proanthocyanidin contents of 27, 24, 10 and 1.2mg/2.5dl, flavonol contents of 16, 15, 5.2 & 1.9mg/2.5dl and phenolic acid contents of 12, 8.9, 3.7 and 1.5mg/2.5dl, respectively. The mean vitamin C content was highest in British (70mg/2.5dl) and lowest in Finnish products (15mg/2.5dl). The intake of polyphenols from German and Polish ready-to-drink beverages was clearly higher than that from Finnish, and especially, British beverages.

Effects of dietary cold-pressed turnip rapeseed oil and butter on serum lipids, oxidized LDL and arterial elasticity in men with metabolic syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Rapeseed oil is the principal dietary source of monounsaturated and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the Northern Europe. However, the effect of rapeseed oil on the markers of subclinical atherosclerosis is not known. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of dietary intake of cold-pressed turnip rapeseed oil (CPTRO) and butter on serum lipids, oxidized LDL and arterial elasticity in men with metabolic syndrome. METHODS: Thirty-seven men with metabolic syndrome completed an open and balanced crossover study. Treatment periods lasted for 6 to 8 weeks and they were separated from each other with an eight-week washout period. Subjects maintained their normal dietary habits and physical activity without major variations. The daily fat adjunct consisted either of 37.5 grams of butter or 35 mL of Virgino R CPTRO. Participants were asked to spread butter on bread on the butter period and to drink CPTRO on the oil period. The fat adjunct was used as such without heating or frying. RESULTS: Compared to butter, administration of CPTRO was followed by a reduction of total cholesterol by 8% (p < 0.001) and LDL cholesterol by 11% (p < 0.001). The level of oxidized LDL was 16% lower after oil period (p = 0.024). Minimal differences in arterial elasticity were not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Cold-pressed turnip rapeseed oil had favourable effects on circulating LDL cholesterol and oxidized LDL, which may be important in the management of patients at high cardiovascular risk.

Effect of processing and storage on the stability of flaxseed lignan added to dairy products.

This study investigated the effects of processing and storage on the stability of purified, flaxseed-derived secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) added to milk prior to the manufacture of different dairy products. We analyzed the effect of high-temperature pasteurization, fermentation, and milk renneting as well as storage on the stability of SDG added to milk, yogurt, and cheese. Also, the stability of SDG in whey-based drinks was studied. Added SDG was found to withstand the studied processes well. In edam cheese manufacture, most of the added SDG was retained in the whey fraction and 6% was found in the cheese curd. SDG was also relatively stable in edam cheese during ripening of 6 weeks at 9 degrees C and in yogurt during storage of 21 days at 4 degrees C. Up to 25% of added SDG was lost in whey-based drinks during storage of 6 months at 8 degrees C. We conclude that SDG can be successfully supplemented in dairy-based products.

Effect of processing and storage on the stability of flaxseed lignan added to bakery products.

The study focused on the effects of processing and storage on the stability of flaxseed-derived secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) added to various bakery products. The SDG concentration of doughs, baked rye breads, graham buns, and muffins was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection; the baked products were analyzed immediately after baking and upon storage at room temperature for 1 week and at -25 degrees C for 1 and 2 months, respectively. Added SDG was found to withstand normal baking temperatures in all bakery products. SDG also was a relatively stable compound during storage. Similarly, the content of SDG in flax buns containing fat-free flaxseed meal was unaffected by storage. We conclude that cereal-based bakery products can be supplemented with flaxseed-derived SDG.

Contents of phenolic acids, alkyl- and alkenylresorcinols, and avenanthramides in commercial grain products.

The contents of free and total phenolic acids and alk(en)ylresorcinols were analyzed in commercial products of eight grains: oat (Avena sativa), wheat (Triticum spp.), rye (Secale cerale), barley (Hordeum vulgare), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), millet (Panicum miliaceum), rice (Oryza sativa), and corn (Zea mays). Avenanthramides were determined in three oat products. Free phenolic acids, alk(en)ylresorcinols, and avenanthramides were extracted with methanolic acetic acid, 100% methanol, and 80% methanol, respectively, and quantified by HPLC. The contents of total phenolic acids were quantified by HPLC analysis after alkaline and acid hydrolyses. The highest contents of total phenolic acids were in brans of wheat (4527 mg/kg) and rye (4190 mg/kg) and in whole-grain flours of these grains (1342 and 1366 mg/kg, respectively). In other products, the contents varied from 111 mg/kg (white wheat bread) to 765 mg/kg (whole-grain rye bread). Common phenolic acids found in the grain products were ferulic acid (most abundant), ferulic acid dehydrodimers, sinapic acid, and p-coumaric acid. The grain products were found to contain either none or only low amounts of free phenolic acids. The content of avenanthramides in oat flakes (26-27 mg/kg) was about double that found in oat bran (13 mg/kg). The highest contents of alk(en)ylresorcinols were observed in brans of rye (4108 mg/kg) and wheat (3225 mg/kg). In addition, whole-grain rye products (rye bread, rye flour, and whole-wheat flour) contained considerable levels of alk(en)ylresorcinols (524, 927, and 759 mg/kg, respectively).

Process-induced changes on bioactive compounds in whole grain rye.

Manufacturing of healthy wholegrain foods demands knowledge of process-induced changes in macro-, micro- and non-nutrients. The high content of dietary fibre is a challenge in relation to good product texture and sensory quality. The stability and bioavailability of bioactive compounds have a marked influence on the health effects of cereal foods. It was confirmed that sterols, folates, tocopherols and tocotrienols, alkylresorcinols, lignans, phenolic acids and total phenolics are concentrated in the bran layers of the rye grain, and are only present at low levels in the flour endosperm. The levels of folate and easily-extractable phenolic compounds increase in germination and sourdough baking, but there are negligible changes in the levels of sterols, lignans and alk(en)ylresorcinols. The levels of tocopherols and tocotrienols are reduced during the sourdough fermentation. In conclusion, many of the bioactive compounds in wholegrain rye are stable during food processing, and their levels can even be increased with suitable processing.