Antigenic Characterization of Novel Human Norovirus GII.4 Variants San Francisco 2017 and Hong Kong 2019.

Norovirus is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis; GII.4 is the predominant strain in humans. Recently, 2 new GII.4 variants, Hong Kong 2019 and San Francisco 2017, were reported. Characterization using GII.4 monoclonal antibodies and serum demonstrated different antigenic profiles for the new variants compared with historical variants.

Analysis of Archival Sera from Norovirus-Infected Individuals Demonstrates that Cross-Blocking of Emerging Viruses is Genotype-Specific.

BACKGROUND: Rapidly evolving RNA viruses, such as human norovirus, generate extraordinary sequence diversity, posing a significant challenge to vaccine design. This diversity coupled with short-lasting natural immunity leads to re-infection throughout one's lifetime. How re-exposure shapes humoral immunity to future norovirus strains remains incompletely understood. METHODS: We profiled the antibody responses following two community gastroenteritis outbreaks with GII.2 and GII.6 noroviruses in 1971. Using diverse VLPs, ELISA, and carbohydrate-blocking assays (surrogate for neutralization), we examined the antibody response at acute and convalescent timepoints following GII.6 infection. RESULTS: Convalescent sera displayed strong homologous blocking, demonstrating a 5-fold increase in GII.6 carbohydrate-blockade over acute samples, and broad blocking of diverse archival and modern GII.6 noroviruses. Convalescent sera displayed limited carbohydrate-blocking of heterotypic VLPs, despite high ELISA binding titers. Select individuals developed broad cross-genotype blockade, but this response was established before the second outbreak. Finally, we applied a novel competitive carbohydrate-blocking assay to demonstrate the epitope-specificity and discrete compartments of the neutralizing response. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that infection generates narrow, focused immunity directed towards the infecting genotype. We did detect broad cross-blocking in specific individuals, but these responses could be attributed to diverse, genotype-specific antibodies pre-dating GII.6 infection.

Discovery and Characterization of a Pan-betacoronavirus S2-binding antibody.

Three coronaviruses have spilled over from animal reservoirs into the human population and caused deadly epidemics or pandemics. The continued emergence of coronaviruses highlights the need for pan-coronavirus interventions for effective pandemic preparedness. Here, using LIBRA-seq, we report a panel of 50 coronavirus antibodies isolated from human B cells. Of these antibodies, 54043-5 was shown to bind the S2 subunit of spike proteins from alpha-, beta-, and deltacoronaviruses. A cryo-EM structure of 54043-5 bound to the pre-fusion S2 subunit of the SARS-CoV-2 spike defined an epitope at the apex of S2 that is highly conserved among betacoronaviruses. Although non-neutralizing, 54043-5 induced Fc-dependent antiviral responses, including ADCC and ADCP. In murine SARS-CoV-2 challenge studies, protection against disease was observed after introduction of Leu234Ala, Leu235Ala, and Pro329Gly (LALA-PG) substitutions in the Fc region of 54043-5. Together, these data provide new insights into the protective mechanisms of non-neutralizing antibodies and define a broadly conserved epitope within the S2 subunit.

Minimal Antigenic Evolution after a Decade of Norovirus GII.4 Sydney_2012 Circulation in Humans.

Norovirus is a major human pathogen that can cause severe gastroenteritis in vulnerable populations. The extensive viral diversity presented by human noroviruses constitutes a major roadblock for the development of effective vaccines. In addition to the large number of genotypes, antigenically distinct variants of GII.4 noroviruses have chronologically emerged over the last 3 decades. The last variant to emerge, Sydney_2012, has been circulating at high incidence worldwide for over a decade. We analyzed 1449 capsid sequences from GII.4 Sydney_2012 viruses to determine genetic changes indicative of antigenic diversification. Phylogenetic analyses show that Sydney_2012 viruses scattered within the tree topology with no single cluster dominating during a given year or geographical location. Fourteen residues presented high variability, 7 of which mapped to 4 antigenic sites. Notably, ~52% of viruses presented mutations at 2 or more antigenic sites. Mutational patterns showed that residues 297 and 372, which map to antigenic site A, changed over time. Virus-like particles (VLPs) developed from wild-type Sydney_2012 viruses and engineered to display all mutations detected at antigenic sites were tested against polyclonal sera and monoclonal antibodies raised against Sydney_2012 and Farmington_Hills_2002 VLPs. Minimal changes in reactivity were detected with polyclonal sera and only 4 MAbs lost binding, with all mapping to antigenic site A. Notably, reversion of residues from Sydney_2012 reconstituted epitopes from ancestral GII.4 variants. Overall, this study demonstrates that, despite circulating for over a decade, Sydney_2012 viruses present minimal antigenic diversification and provides novel insights on the diversification of GII.4 noroviruses that could inform vaccine design. IMPORTANCE GII.4 noroviruses are the major cause of acute gastroenteritis in all age groups. This predominance has been attributed to the continued emergence of phylogenetically discrete variants that escape immune responses to previous infections. The last GII.4 variant to emerge, Sydney_2012, has been circulating at high incidence for over a decade, raising the question of whether this variant is undergoing antigenic diversification without presenting a major distinction at the phylogenetic level. Sequence analyses that include >1400 capsid sequences from GII.4 Sydney_2012 showed changes in 4 out of the 6 major antigenic sites. Notably, while changes were detected in one of the most immunodominant sites over time, these resulted in minimal changes in the antigenic profile of these viruses. This study provides new insights on the mechanism governing the antigenic diversification of GII.4 norovirus that could help in the development of cross-protective vaccines to human noroviruses.

Functional HIV-1/HCV cross-reactive antibodies isolated from a chronically co-infected donor.

Despite prolific efforts to characterize the antibody response to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) mono-infections, the response to chronic co-infection with these two ever-evolving viruses is poorly understood. Here, we investigate the antibody repertoire of a chronically HIV-1/HCV co-infected individual using linking B cell receptor to antigen specificity through sequencing (LIBRA-seq). We identify five HIV-1/HCV cross-reactive antibodies demonstrating binding and functional cross-reactivity between HIV-1 and HCV envelope glycoproteins. All five antibodies show exceptional HCV neutralization breadth and effector functions against both HIV-1 and HCV. One antibody, mAb688, also cross-reacts with influenza and coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We examine the development of these antibodies using next-generation sequencing analysis and lineage tracing and find that somatic hypermutation established and enhanced this reactivity. These antibodies provide a potential future direction for therapeutic and vaccine development against current and emerging infectious diseases. More broadly, chronic co-infection represents a complex immunological challenge that can provide insights into the fundamental rules that underly antibody-antigen specificity.

Cross-reactive neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies mapping to variable antigenic sites on the norovirus major capsid protein.

Human noroviruses are the major viral cause of acute gastroenteritis around the world. Although norovirus symptoms are in most cases mild and self-limited, severe and prolonged symptoms can occur in the elderly and in immunocompromised individuals. Thus, there is a great need for the development of specific therapeutics that can help mitigate infection. In this study, we sought to characterize a panel of human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs; NORO-123, -115, -273A, -263, -315B, and -250B) that showed carbohydrate blocking activity against the current pandemic variant, GII.4 Sydney 2012. All antibodies tested showed potent neutralization against GII.4 Sydney virus in human intestinal enteroid culture. While all mAbs recognized only GII.4 viruses, they exhibited differential binding patterns against a panel of virus-like particles (VLPs) representing major and minor GII.4 variants spanning twenty-five years. Using mutant VLPs, we mapped five of the mAbs to variable antigenic sites A (NORO-123, -263, -315B, and -250B) or C (NORO-115) on the major capsid protein. Those mapping to the antigenic site A showed blocking activity against multiple variants dating back to 1987, with one mAb (NORO-123) showing reactivity to all variants tested. NORO-115, which maps to antigenic site C, showed reactivity against multiple variants due to the low susceptibility for mutations presented by naturally-occurring variants at the proposed binding site. Notably, we show that cross-blocking and neutralizing antibodies can be elicited against variable antigenic sites. These data provide new insights into norovirus immunity and suggest potential for the development of cross-protective vaccines and therapeutics.

High-Throughput B Cell Epitope Determination by Next-Generation Sequencing.

Development of novel technologies for the discovery of human monoclonal antibodies has proven invaluable in the fight against infectious diseases. Among the diverse antibody repertoires elicited by infection or vaccination, often only rare antibodies targeting specific epitopes of interest are of potential therapeutic value. Current antibody discovery efforts are capable of identifying B cells specific for a given antigen; however, epitope specificity information is usually only obtained after subsequent monoclonal antibody production and characterization. Here we describe LIBRA-seq with epitope mapping, a next-generation sequencing technology that enables residue-level epitope determination for thousands of single B cells simultaneously. By utilizing an antigen panel of point mutants within the HIV-1 Env glycoprotein, we identified and confirmed antibodies targeting multiple sites of vulnerability on Env, including the CD4-binding site and the V3-glycan site. LIBRA-seq with epitope mapping is an efficient tool for high-throughput identification of antibodies against epitopes of interest on a given antigen target.

Efficient discovery of SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing antibodies via B cell receptor sequencing and ligand blocking.

Although several monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been approved for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) therapy, development was generally inefficient, with lead generation often requiring the production and testing of numerous antibody candidates. Here, we report that the integration of target-ligand blocking with a previously described B cell receptor-sequencing approach (linking B cell receptor to antigen specificity through sequencing (LIBRA-seq)) enables the rapid and efficient identification of multiple neutralizing mAbs that prevent the binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The combination of target-ligand blocking and high-throughput antibody sequencing promises to increase the throughput of programs aimed at discovering new neutralizing antibodies.

Simultaneous Immunization with Multiple Diverse Immunogens Alters Development of Antigen-Specific Antibody-Mediated Immunity.

Vaccination remains one of the most successful medical interventions in history, significantly decreasing morbidity and mortality associated with, or even eradicating, numerous infectious diseases. Although traditional immunization strategies have recently proven insufficient in the face of many highly mutable and emerging pathogens, modern strategies aim to rationally engineer a single antigen or cocktail of antigens to generate a focused, protective immune response. However, the effect of cocktail vaccination (simultaneous immunization with multiple immunogens) on the antibody response to each individual antigen within the combination, remains largely unstudied. To investigate whether immunization with a cocktail of diverse antigens would result in decreased antibody titer against each unique antigen in the cocktail compared to immunization with each antigen alone, we immunized mice with surface proteins from uropathogenic Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Neisseria meningitides, and monitored the development of antigen-specific IgG antibody responses. We found that antigen-specific endpoint antibody titers were comparable across immunization groups by study conclusion (day 70). Further, we discovered that although cocktail-immunized mice initially elicited more robust antibody responses, the rate of titer development decreases significantly over time compared to single antigen-immunized mice. Investigating the basic properties that govern the development of antigen-specific antibody responses will help inform the design of future combination immunization regimens.

Efficient discovery of potently neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 antibodies using LIBRA-seq with ligand blocking.

SARS-CoV-2 therapeutic antibody discovery efforts have met with notable success but have been associated with a generally inefficient process, requiring the production and characterization of exceptionally large numbers of candidates for the identification of a small set of leads. Here, we show that incorporating antibody-ligand blocking as part of LIBRA-seq, the high-throughput sequencing platform for antibody discovery, results in efficient identification of ultra-potent neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. LIBRA-seq with ligand blocking is a general platform for functional antibody discovery targeting the disruption of antigen-ligand interactions.

Cross-reactive coronavirus antibodies with diverse epitope specificities and Fc effector functions.

The continual emergence of novel coronaviruses (CoV), such as severe acute respiratory syndrome-(SARS)-CoV-2, highlights the critical need for broadly reactive therapeutics and vaccines against this family of viruses. From a recovered SARS-CoV donor sample, we identify and characterize a panel of six monoclonal antibodies that cross-react with CoV spike (S) proteins from the highly pathogenic SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, and demonstrate a spectrum of reactivity against other CoVs. Epitope mapping reveals that these antibodies recognize multiple epitopes on SARS-CoV-2 S, including the receptor-binding domain, the N-terminal domain, and the S2 subunit. Functional characterization demonstrates that the antibodies mediate phagocytosis-and in some cases trogocytosis-but not neutralization in vitro. When tested in vivo in murine models, two of the antibodies demonstrate a reduction in hemorrhagic pathology in the lungs. The identification of cross-reactive epitopes recognized by functional antibodies expands the repertoire of targets for pan-coronavirus vaccine design strategies.

Cross-reactive coronavirus antibodies with diverse epitope specificities and extra-neutralization functions.

The continual emergence of novel coronavirus (CoV) strains, like SARS-CoV-2, highlights the critical need for broadly reactive therapeutics and vaccines against this family of viruses. Coronavirus spike (S) proteins share common structural motifs that could be vulnerable to cross-reactive antibody responses. To study this phenomenon in human coronavirus infection, we applied a high-throughput sequencing method called LIBRA-seq (Linking B cell receptor to antigen specificity through sequencing) to a SARS-CoV-1 convalescent donor sample. We identified and characterized a panel of six monoclonal antibodies that cross-reacted with S proteins from the highly pathogenic SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 and demonstrated a spectrum of reactivity against other coronaviruses. Epitope mapping revealed that these antibodies recognized multiple epitopes on SARS-CoV-2 S, including the receptor binding domain (RBD), N-terminal domain (NTD), and S2 subunit. Functional characterization demonstrated that the antibodies mediated a variety of Fc effector functions in vitro and mitigated pathological burden in vivo . The identification of cross-reactive epitopes recognized by functional antibodies expands the repertoire of targets for pan-coronavirus vaccine design strategies that may be useful for preventing potential future coronavirus outbreaks.

High-Throughput Mapping of B Cell Receptor Sequences to Antigen Specificity.

B cell receptor (BCR) sequencing is a powerful tool for interrogating immune responses to infection and vaccination, but it provides limited information about the antigen specificity of the sequenced BCRs. Here, we present LIBRA-seq (linking B cell receptor to antigen specificity through sequencing), a technology for high-throughput mapping of paired heavy- and light-chain BCR sequences to their cognate antigen specificities. B cells are mixed with a panel of DNA-barcoded antigens so that both the antigen barcode(s) and BCR sequence are recovered via single-cell next-generation sequencing. Using LIBRA-seq, we mapped the antigen specificity of thousands of B cells from two HIV-infected subjects. The predicted specificities were confirmed for a number of HIV- and influenza-specific antibodies, including known and novel broadly neutralizing antibodies. LIBRA-seq will be an integral tool for antibody discovery and vaccine development efforts against a wide range of antigen targets.