Resistance Training for Older Women: Do Adaptive Responses Support the ACSM and NSCA Position Stands?

PURPOSE: The optimal intensity of resistance training (RT) to improve muscular, physical performance, and metabolic adaptations still needs to be well established for older adults. Based on current position statements, we compared the effects of two different RT loads on muscular strength, functional performance, skeletal muscle mass, hydration status, and metabolic biomarkers in older women. METHODS: One hundred one older women were randomly allocated to perform a 12-wk whole-body RT program (eight exercises, three sets, three nonconsecutive days a week) into two groups: 8-12 repetitions maximum (RM) and 10-15RM. Muscular strength (1RM tests), physical performance (motor tests), skeletal muscle mass (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), hydration status (bioelectrical impedance), and metabolic biomarkers (glucose, total cholesterol, HDL-c, HDL-c, triglycerides, and C-reactive protein) were measured at baseline and posttraining. RESULTS: Regarding muscular strength, 8-12RM promoted higher 1RM increases in chest press (+23.2% vs +10.7%, P < 0.01) and preacher curl (+15.7% vs +7.4%, P < 0.01), but not in leg extension (+14.9% vs +12.3%, P > 0.05). Both groups improved functional performance ( P < 0.05) in gait speed (4.6%-5.6%), 30 s chair stand (4.6%-5.9%), and 6 min walking (6.7%-7.0%) tests, with no between-group differences ( P > 0.05). The 10-15RM group elicited superior improves in the hydration status (total body water, intracellular and extracellular water; P < 0.01), and higher gains of skeletal muscle mass (2.5% vs 6.3%, P < 0.01), upper (3.9% vs 9.0%, P < 0.01) and lower limbs lean soft tissue (2.1% vs 5.4%, P < 0.01). Both groups improved their metabolic profile. However, 10-15RM elicited greater glucose reductions (-0.2% vs -4.9%, P < 0.05) and greater HDL-c increases (-0.2% vs +4.7%, P < 0.01), with no between-group differences for the other metabolic biomarkers ( P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that 8-2RM seems more effective than 10-15RM for increasing upper limbs' muscular strength, whereas the adaptative responses for lower limbs and functional performance appear similar in older women. In contrast, 10-15RM seems more effective for skeletal muscle mass gains, and increased intracellular hydration and improvements in metabolic profile may accompany this adaptation.

Comparison of 2 Weekly Frequencies of Resistance Training on Muscular Strength, Body Composition, and Metabolic Biomarkers in Resistance-Trained Older Women: Effects of Detraining and Retraining.

ABSTRACT: Amarante do Nascimento, M, Nunes, JPA, Pina, FLC, Ribeiro, AS, Carneiro, NH, Venturini, D, Barbosa, DS, Mayhew, JL, and Cyrino, ES. Comparison of 2 weekly frequencies of resistance training on muscular strength, body composition, and metabolic biomarkers in resistance-trained older women: Effects of detraining and retraining. J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1437-1444, 2022-This study aimed to compare the effects of 2 weekly frequencies of resistance training (RT) on muscular strength, body composition, and metabolic biomarkers in previously resistance-trained older women after detraining and retraining. Forty subjects (>60 years) performed RT (8 exercises, 1 set of 10-15 repetitions maximum) 2 (G2x) or 3 (G3x) times per week over 12 weeks of training and retraining. After training, subjects were detrained for 12 weeks. After detraining, there were significant decreases (p < 0.05) in upper-body (∼12%) and lower-body (∼14%) muscular strength, fat-free mass (FFM) (∼2%), and testosterone (∼26%), whereas increases were revealed for fat mass (FM) (∼4%), relative body fat (∼3%), fasting glucose (∼8%), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (∼21%), and triglycerides (∼24%), with no differences between groups (p > 0.05). Following retraining, there were significant increases (p < 0.05) for upper (∼7%) and lower (∼10%) muscular strength, FFM (∼2%), and testosterone (∼20%). In contrast, decreases were found for FM (∼7%), relative body fat (∼3%), fasting glucose (∼6%), LDL-C (∼14%), and triglycerides (∼21%), also with no differences between groups (p > 0.05). Gains after retraining were lower than after training (p < 0.05) only for upper- and lower-body muscular strength (∼6%) and testosterone (∼11%). Total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, IGF-1, and C-reactive protein did not change at any point in the study for either group (p > 0.05). Our results suggest that older women can regain previous RT program benefits following detraining, regardless of the weekly training frequency. However, some fitness components may take longer to reestablish than the initial training level.

Responsiveness to muscle mass gain following 12 and 24 weeks of resistance training in older women.

BACKGROUND: Many factors may influence the magnitude of individual responses to resistance training (RT). How the manipulation of training volume and frequency affects responsiveness level for muscle mass gain in older women has not been investigated. AIMS: This study had the objective of identifying responders (RP) and non-responders (N-RP) older women for skeletal muscle mass (SMM) gain from a 12-week resistance training (RT) program. Additionally, we analyzed whether the N-RP could gain SMM with an increase in weekly training volume over 12 additional weeks of training. METHODS: Thirty-nine older women (aged ≥ 60 years) completed 24 weeks of a whole-body RT intervention (eight exercises, 2-3×/week, 1-2 sets of 10-15 repetitions). SMM was estimated by DXA, and the responsive cut-off value was set at two times the standard error of measurement. Participants were considered as RP if they exceeded the cut-off value after a 12-week RT phase, while the N-RP were those who failed to reach the SMM cut-off. RESULTS: Of the 22 participants considered to be N-RP, only 3 accumulated SMM gains (P = 0.250) that exceeded the cut-off point for responsiveness following 12 additional weeks of training, while 19 maintained or presented negative SMM changes. Of the 17 participants considered to be RP, all continued to gain SMM after the second 12-week RT phase. No significant correlation was observed between the changes in SMM and any baseline aspect of the participants. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that some older women are RP, while others are N-RP to SMM gains resulting from RT. Furthermore, the non-responsiveness condition was not altered by an increase of training volume and intervention duration while RP participants continue to increase SMM; it appears that RP continue to be RP, and N-RP continue to be N-RP.

Comparison of the effects of different weekly frequencies of resistance training on metabolic health markers and body fat in older women.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a 24-week resistance-training (RT) program performed 2 vs. 3 times per week on body fat and metabolic health markers in older women. METHODS: Thirty-nine women (≥60 years old) were randomly assigned to two groups according to RT frequency (G2x=two sessions per week, N.=19; and G3x=three sessions per week, N.=20) and were submitted to two 12-week stages of whole-body RT. In the first stage, participants performed 1 set of 10 to 15 repetitions in each of eight exercises, whereas in the second stage, they performed 2 sets of 10 to 15 repetitions. Body fat was estimated by DXA, while biochemical analyses were performed on venous blood samples collected in the morning hours after a 12 hours' fasting and after a minimum of 48 hours since the last physical exercise session. RESULTS: After the 24 weeks of RT, only G3x significantly reduced body fat mass (G2x=0.0%; G3x=-5.1%), whereas both G2x and G3x reduced blood glucose and C-reactive protein levels. Both groups improved HDL-C after the first 12-week stage compared to baseline, although the changes from pre- to post-training were not significantly different between groups. No significant difference was observed compared to baseline for total cholesterol, VLDL-C, LDL-C, and triglycerides for either group. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that RT-induced changes in health markers may occur regardless of RT frequency, whereas performing RT three times per week may be needed for reducing total body fat mass in older women.

Effects of Different Weekly Sets-Equated Resistance Training Frequencies on Muscular Strength, Muscle Mass, and Body Fat in Older Women.

Pina, FLC, Nunes, JP, Schoenfeld, BJ, Nascimento, MA, Gerage, AM, Januário, RSB, Carneiro, NH, Cyrino, ES, and Oliveira, AR. Effects of different weekly sets-equated resistance training frequencies on muscular strength, muscle mass and body fat in older women. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 2990-2995, 2020-The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different resistance training (RT) frequencies (2 vs. 3 times per week) with an equivalent number of weekly sets performed between conditions on muscular strength and body composition in older women. Forty-seven older women (65 ± 4 years) were divided into 2 groups that performed a 12-week RT program either 2 (G2x and 3 sets) or 3 (G3x and 2 sets) times per week. The groups were evaluated before and after study on measures of body composition through dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, and muscular strength through one repetition maximum (1RM) testing. Lean soft tissue was significantly increased in both groups (G2x = +1.7%, G3x = +1.7%), while only G3x reduced body fat after the intervention period (G2x = -0.7%, G3x = -2.9%). Similarly, significant increases were noted between conditions for 1RM scores in bench press (G2x = +11.8%, G3x = +11.9%) and knee extension (G2x = +17.4%, G3x = +10.8%). The results indicate that performing 2 or 3 RT sessions per week promotes similar improvements in muscular outcomes, while training more frequently may reduce body fat after 12 weeks of weekly sets-equated RT in untrained older women.

Agreement Between Bioelectrical Impedance and Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry to Track Changes in Fat-Free Mass After Resistance Training in Older Women.

Nascimento, MA, Silva, DRP, Ribeiro, AS, Pina, FLC, Gerage, AM, Gobbo, LA, Mayhew, JL, and Cyrino, ES. Agreement between bioelectrical impedance and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry to track changes in fat-free mass after resistance training in older women. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1700-1708, 2020-The aim of our study was to compare the agreement between bioelectrical impedance (BIA) and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to track changes on fat-free mass (FFM) after a resistance training (RT) program in older women. Forty-three older women (65.2 ± 4.6 years, 59.5 ± 9.2 kg, 156.4 ± 6.0 cm, 24.3 ± 3.3 kg·m) participated in a RT intervention (12 weeks, 8 exercises, 2 sets, 10-15 repetitions, 3 nonconsecutive days per week). Fat-free mass changes were determined by a single-frequency BIA device (EQ1), 6 BIA prediction equations for older women (EQ2, EQ3, EQ4, EQ5, EQ6, and EQ7), and DXA. At pretraining, 3 equations overpredicted, and 3 underpredicted DXA FFM (F = 244.63, p < 0.001), although all equations had high correlations with DXA (r = 0.78-0.83). After training, 4 equations overpredicted and one underpredicted DXA FFM (F = 176.25, p < 0.001). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry detected significant gains in FFM (0.65 ± 0.82 kg; p < 0.05), as did EQ3 (0.55 ± 1.69 kg; p < 0.05), and EQ4 (0.61 ± 1.88 kg; p < 0.05), whereas the remaining equations did not indicate significant changes in FFM. Low correlations between FFM and equation change values suggest that single-frequency BIA-derived equations may not provide sufficient accuracy to track changes in FFM after 12 weeks of RT in older women.

Similar Effects of 24 Weeks of Resistance Training Performed with Different Frequencies on Muscle Strength, Muscle Mass, and Muscle Quality in Older Women.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of 24 weeks of resistance training (RT) performed 2 vs. 3 times per week on muscle strength, muscle mass, and muscle quality in older women. Thirty-nine older women (≥ 60 years old) were randomly assigned to two groups according to RT frequency (G2× = two sessions per week, n=19; and G3× = three sessions per week, n=20) and were submitted to 24 weeks of whole-body RT, divided into two stages of 12 weeks. In the first stage, participants performed 1 set of 10 to 15 repetitions in each of eight exercise, whereas in the second stage, they performed 2 sets of 10 to 15 repetitions. Muscle strength was assessed by one repetition maximum (1RM) tests in chest press, knee extension, and biceps preacher curl, while the lean soft tissue was estimated by DXA. The muscle quality index was determined by the ratio between strength and lean soft tissue. There were observed similar increases between groups for muscle strength (G2x=19.5%; G3×=22.2%), lean soft tissue (G2x=3.0%; G3×=1.6%), and muscle quality index (G2x=16.0%; G3×=21.1%). These results indicate that RT-induced muscular adaptation occurs regardless of training twice or thrice a week in older women. Instructors, coaches and practitioners can choose their training frequency preference, since both frequencies provided similar adaptations.

Effects of Different Resistance Training Frequencies on Fat in Overweight/Obese Older Women.

AIM: This study compared the effect of different resistance training (RT) frequencies on total, android, gynoid and trunk body fat in overweight/obese older women. METHODS: Fifty-seven overweight/obese older women (66.9±5.3 years and 39.9±4.9% body fat) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a group performing RT twice a week (G2X), a group performing RT three times a week (G3X), or a non-exercise control group (CG). Both training groups performed the same 12-week RT program consisting of 8 exercises that trained all major muscle groups. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to assess body composition. RESULTS: After the intervention period, both G2X and G3X demonstrated significant (P<0.05) reductions in adiposity compared to the CG for total body fat (G2X=-1.7%, G3X=-2.7%, CG=+2.1%), android fat (G2X=-6.2%, G3X=-7.0%, CG=+8.6%), gynoid fat (G2X=-2.5%, G3X=-2.9%, CG=+1.0%), and trunk fat (G2X=-2.5%, G3X=-3.0%, CG=+2.9%), with no significant differences between training groups. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that a low-volume 12-week RT program performed two or three times per week causes decreases in total and regional fat deposition with the greatest reductions occurring in the android region.

Resistance training with dietary intake maintenance increases strength without altering body composition in older women.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that the aging process tends to lead to sarcopenia and osteoporosis which reduce the quality of life in older women. Resistance training (RT) is widely supported as a means of delaying or offsetting the decline in muscle strength and loss of bone mineral content in older women. The purpose of this investigation was to analyze the effects of a 12-wk RT program (3 times a week) with dietary intake maintenance on muscle strength and body composition of healthy, sedentary older women. METHODS: Forty-four older women were randomly assigned to a RT program (N.=22, 66.3±4.8 years, 60.7±9.1 kg, 153.1±0.90 cm, 24.9±3.3 kg/m²) or a control group (N.=22, 66.4±4.0 years, 63.3±7.5 kg, 155.5±5.8 cm, 26.2±2.6 kg/m²) performing stretching exercises during the same period. One-repetition maximum test on chest press and leg extension were used to assess muscle strength. Body composition was measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry to determine fat mass, fat-free mass, and bone mineral content. Dietary intake was recorded using a 3-day food records. All subjects maintained their normal diet during the investigation. RESULTS: No significant differences were found for the body composition components within and between groups. A significant time by group interaction indicated that the RT group made greater improvements in upper and lower limb muscle strength (chest press ~12%, P=0.0001; leg extension ~13%, P<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that RT program improves muscle strength of major muscle groups, without altering body composition in older women under dietary intake maintenance.

The improvement in walking speed induced by resistance training is associated with increased muscular strength but not skeletal muscle mass in older women.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study was to analyze whether improvements in fast walking speed induced by resistance training (RT) are associated with changes in body composition, muscle quality, and muscular strength in older women. METHODS: Twenty-three healthy older women (69.6 ± 6.4 years, 64.95 ± 12.9 kg, 1.55 ± 0.07 m, 27.06 ± 4.6 kg/m²) performed a RT program for 8 weeks consisting of 8 exercises for the whole body, 3 sets of 10-15 repetitions maximum, 3 times a week. Anthropometric, body composition (fat-free mass [FFM], skeletal muscle mass [SMM], legs lean soft tissue [LLST], fat mass), knee extension muscular strength (KE1RM), muscle quality index (MQI [KE1RM/LLST]), and 10-meter walking test (10-MWT) were performed before and after the intervention. RESULTS: Significant (P < .05) changes were observed from pre- to post-training for FFM (+1.6%), MQI (+7.2%), SMM (+2.4%), LLST (+1.8%), KE1RM (+8.6%), fat mass (-1.4%), and time to perform 10-MWT (-3.7%). The percentage change in 10-MWT was significantly associated with percentage change in MQI (r = -0.46, P = .04) and KE1RM (r = -0.45, P = .04), however not associated percentage of changes in SMM (r = 0.01, P = .97), LLST (r = -0.22, P = .33), and body fat (r = 0.10, P = .66). CONCLUSION: We conclude that the improvement in the 10-MWT after an 8-week RT program is associated with increases in lower limb muscular strength and muscle quality, but not with muscle mass or body fat changes in older women.

Effects of Traditional and Pyramidal Resistance Training Systems on Muscular Strength, Muscle Mass, and Hormonal Responses in Older Women: A Randomized Crossover Trial.

Ribeiro, AS, Schoenfeld, BJ, Fleck, SJ, Pina, FLC, Nascimento, MA, and Cyrino, ES. Effects of traditional and pyramidal resistance training systems on muscular strength, muscle mass, and hormonal responses in older women: a randomized crossover trial. J Strength Cond Res 31(7): 1888-1896, 2017-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of resistance training (RT) performed in a pyramid (PR) versus a traditional (TD) system on muscular strength, muscle mass, and hormonal responses in older women. Twenty-five older women (67.6 ± 5.1 years, 65.9 ± 11.1 kg, 154.7 ± 5.8 cm, and 27.5 ± 4.5 kg·m) performed both a TD and PR system RT program in a balanced crossover design. The TD program consisted of 3 sets of 8-12 repetition maximum (RM) with a constant load for the 3 sets, whereas the PR system consisted of 3 sets of 12/10/8-RM with incrementally higher loads for each set. Training was performed in 2 phases of 8 weeks each, with a 12-week washout between the 8-week phases. One repetition maximum (1RM) tests were used as measures of muscular strength. Dual X-ray absorptiometry was used to estimate skeletal muscle mass. Testosterone and IGF-1 concentrations were determined preintervention and postintervention after 12 hours fasting. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases were observed in both groups for muscular strength in the 1RM chest press (TD = 12.4% and effect size [ES] = 0.86 vs. PR = 11.5% and ES = 0.74), knee extension (TD = 12.5% and ES = 0.61 vs. PR = 11.8% and ES = 0.62), preacher curl (TD = 10.9% and ES = 0.63 vs. PR = 8.6% and ES = 0.54), and for skeletal muscle mass (TD = 3.6% and ES = 0.32 vs. PR = 2.4% and ES = 0.24) with no differences between groups. There were no significant (p > 0.05) main effects for IGF-1 and testosterone. The results suggest that the PR and TD systems performed are similarly effective for promoting positive adaptations in muscular strength and hypertrophy in older women.

Effect of resistance training with different frequencies and detraining on muscular strength and oxidative stress biomarkers in older women.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of resistance training (RT) performed with different frequencies followed by a detraining period on muscular strength and oxidative stress (OS) biomarkers in older women. Twenty-seven physically independent women (68.8 ± 4.8 years, 69.1 ± 14.3 kg, 156.0 ± 6.5 cm, and 28.3 ± 4.9 to kg.m(-2)) were randomly assigned to perform a RT program for 2 or 3 days per week (G2X = 13 vs. G3X = 14) for 12 weeks followed by 12 weeks of detraining period. One repetition maximum (1RM) tests were used as measures of muscular strength (three exercises, three attempts for each exercise, 3-5 min of rest between attempts, and 5 min of rest between exercises). Advanced oxidized protein products (AOPP) and total radical-trapping antioxidant parameter (TRAP) were used as oxidative stress indicators. Both groups increased muscular strength after 12 weeks of training (P < 0.05) in chest press (G2X = +11.9 % vs. G3X = +27.5 %, P < 0.05), knee extension (G2X = +18.4 % vs. G3X = +16.7 %, P > 0.05), and preacher curl (G2X = +37.6 % vs. G3X = +36.7 %, P > 0.05). On the other hand, 12 weeks of detraining were not sufficient to eliminate the major effects produced by RT on muscular strength, although a significant decrease (P < 0.05) has been observed for chest press (G3X = -9.1 % vs. G2X = -10.2 %, P > 0.05), knee extension (G2X = -14.9 % vs. G3X = -12.1 %, P > 0.05), and preacher curl (G2X = -20.5 % vs. G3X = -17.4 %, P > 0.05). Pre- to post-training, both groups showed significant (P < 0.05) increases in TRAP (G2X = +6.9 % vs. G3X = +15.1 %) with no statistical significant difference between the groups (P > 0.05), and the scores remained elevated compared to pre-training after 12 weeks of detraining. AOPP was not changed by RT or detraining (P > 0.05). The results suggest that a 12-week RT program with a frequency of 2 days per week may be sufficient to improve muscular strength and OS in older women and detraining for 12 weeks does not completely reverse the changes induced by RT.

Effect of Two- Versus Three-Way Split Resistance Training Routines on Body Composition and Muscular Strength in Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study.

The purpose of this study was to compare different split resistance training routines on body composition and muscular strength in elite bodybuilders. Ten male bodybuilders (26.7 ± 2.7 years, 85.3 ± 10.4 kg) were randomly assigned into one of two resistance training groups: 4 and 6 times per week (G4× and G6×, respectively), in which the individuals trained for 4 weeks, 4 sets for each exercise performing 6-12 repetitions maximum (RM) in a pyramid fashion. Body composition was assessed by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, muscle strength was evaluated by 1RM bench-press testing. The food intake was planned by nutritionists and offered individually throughout the duration of the experiment. Significant increases (p < .05) in fat-free mass (G4× = +4.2%, G6× = +3.5%) and muscular strength (G4× = +8.4%, G6× = +11.4%) with no group by time interaction were observed. We conclude that 4 and 6 weekly sessions frequencies of resistance training promote similar increases in fat-free mass and muscular strength in elite bodybuilders.