Unravelling Receptor and RGD Motif Dependence of Retargeted Adenoviral Vectors using Advanced Tumor Model Systems.

Recent advances in engineering adenoviruses are paving the way for new therapeutic gene delivery approaches in cancer. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the impact of adenoviral retargeting on transduction efficiency in more complex tumor architectures, and the role of the RGD loop at the penton base in retargeting is unclear. To address this gap, we used tumor models of increasing complexity to study the role of the receptor and the RGD motif. Employing tumor-fibroblast co-culture models, we demonstrate the importance of the RGD motif for efficient transduction in 2D through the epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), but not the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Via optical clearing of co-culture spheroids, we show that the RGD motif is required for transduction via both receptors in 3D tumor architectures. We subsequently employed a custom-designed microfluidic model containing collagen-embedded tumor spheroids, mimicking the interplay between interstitial flow, extracellular matrix and adenoviral transduction. Image analysis of on-chip cleared spheroids indicated the importance of the RGD motif for on-chip adenoviral transduction. Together, our results show the interrelationship between receptor characteristics, the RGD motif, the 3D tumor architecture and retargeted adenoviral transduction efficiency. The findings are important for the rational design of next-generation therapeutic adenoviruses.

AFM structural study of the molecular chaperone GroEL and its two-dimensional crystals: an ideal "living" calibration sample.

Supramolecular complexes, such as chaperonins, are suitable samples for atomic force microscope structural studies because they have a very well defined shape. High-resolution images can be made using tapping mode in liquid under native conditions. Details about the two-dimensional structures formed onto the surface upon adsorption and of the single protein can be observed. Dissection of the upper ring of the supramolecular complex as a result of the applied lateral force through scanning tip is observed. Finally, the combination of lateral convolution and tip penetration into the cavity of chaperonins offers a direct evaluation of the tip convolution effect on images of macromolecular samples.

Zooming in on the hydrophobic ridge of H-2D(b): implications for the conformational variability of bound peptides.

Class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, which display intracellularly processed peptides on the cell surface for scanning by T-cell receptors (TCRs), are extraordinarily polymorphic. MHC polymorphism is believed to result from natural selection, since individuals heterozygous at the corresponding loci can cope with a larger number of pathogens. Here, we present the crystal structures of the murine MHC molecule H-2D(b) in complex with the peptides gp276 and np396 from the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), solved at 2.18 A and 2.20 A resolution, respectively. The most prominent feature of H-2D(b) is a hydrophobic ridge that cuts across its antigen-binding site, which is conserved in the L(d)-like family of class I MHC molecules. The comparison with previously solved crystal structures of peptide/H-2D(b) complexes shows that the hydrophobic ridge focuses the conformational variability of the bound peptides in a "hot-spot", which could allow optimal TCR interaction and discrimination. This finding suggests a functional reason for the conservation of this structural element.

Protein-fold evolution in the test tube.

Currently, the combination of library selection and directed evolution is the most powerful approach for finding proteins with novel folds or functions. In the past, most studies concentrated either on protein scaffolds with a given fold or on short peptides. With the recent development of potent in vitro selection and evolution techniques, the screening of much larger sequence space is possible, allowing for the de novo generation of proteins.

Helix-stabilized Fv (hsFv) antibody fragments: substituting the constant domains of a Fab fragment for a heterodimeric coiled-coil domain.

Antibody Fv fragments would in principle be useful for a variety of biotechnological applications because of their small size and the possibility to produce them in relatively large amounts in recombinant form; however, their limited stability is a drawback. To solve this problem, both domains are usually fused via a peptide linker to form a single-chain Fv (scFv) fragment, but in some cases this leads to a dimerization. We present an alternative format for stabilizing antibody Fv fragments. The C(H)1 and C(L) domain of the Fab fragment were replaced with a heterodimeric coiled coil (WinZip-A2B1), which had previously been selected using a protein-fragment complementation assay in Escherichia coli. This new antibody format was termed helix-stabilized Fv fragment (hsFv), and was compared to the corresponding Fv, Fab and single-chain Fv format. Bacterial growth and expression of the hsFv was significantly improved compared to the Fab fragment. The hsFv fragment formed a heterodimer of heavy and light chain with the expected molecular mass, also under conditions where the scFv fragment was predominantly dimeric. The hsFv fragment was significantly more stable than the Fv fragment, and nearly as stable as the scFv fragment under the conditions used (80 nM protein concentration). Thus, the format of a helix-stabilized Fv (hsFv) fragment can be a useful alternative to existing recombinant antibody formats, especially in cases where poor expression of Fab fragments or multimerization of scFv fragments is a problem.

In vitro display technologies: novel developments and applications.

In vitro display techniques are powerful tools to select polypeptide binders against various target molecules. Novel applications include maturation of protein affinity and stability, selection for enzymatic activity, and the display of cDNA and random polypeptide libraries. Taken together, these display techniques have great potential for biotechnological, medical and proteomic applications.

Imaging the native structure of the chaperone protein GroEL without fixation using atomic force microscopy.

Most sample preparation methods for scanning probe or electron microscopy require that biomolecules, such as proteins, be fixed. Fixation destroys the molecular functionality and can possibly affect the true molecular structure. Here we report sample preparation conditions that allow the imaging of an unfixed protein, GroEL, under in-vivo conditions, by atomic force microscopy. Under these conditions, the protein should maintain its native structure and biological activity. The typical toroidal shape with pore of the GroEL complex was easily visible in the images. Images of a single complex show dimensions that agree well with crystallographic data. Under in-vivo conditions, it should be possible to study the biological activity and function of proteins.

In vitro generated antibodies specific for telomeric guanine-quadruplex DNA react with Stylonychia lemnae macronuclei.

Most eukaryotic telomeres contain a repeating motif with stretches of guanine residues that form a 3'-terminal overhang extending beyond the telomeric duplex region. The telomeric repeat of hypotrichous ciliates, d(T(4)G(4)), forms a 16-nucleotide 3'-overhang. Such sequences can adopt parallel-stranded as well as antiparallel-stranded quadruplex conformations in vitro. Although it has been proposed that guanine-quadruplex conformations may have important cellular roles including telomere function, recombination, and transcription, evidence for the existence of this DNA structure in vivo has been elusive to date. We have generated high-affinity single-chain antibody fragment (scFv) probes for the guanine-quadruplex formed by the Stylonychia telomeric repeat, by ribosome display from the Human Combinatorial Antibody Library. Of the scFvs selected, one (Sty3) had an affinity of K(d) = 125 pM for the parallel-stranded guanine-quadruplex and could discriminate with at least 1,000-fold specificity between parallel or antiparallel quadruplex conformations formed by the same sequence motif. A second scFv (Sty49) bound both the parallel and antiparallel quadruplex with similar (K(d) = 3--5 nM) affinity. Indirect immunofluorescence studies show that Sty49 reacts specifically with the macronucleus but not the micronucleus of Stylonychia lemnae. The replication band, the region where replication and telomere elongation take place, was also not stained, suggesting that the guanine-quadruplex is resolved during replication. Our results provide experimental evidence that the telomeres of Stylonychia macronuclei adopt in vivo a guanine-quadruplex structure, indicating that this structure may have an important role for telomere functioning.

High enzymatic activity and chaperone function are mechanistically related features of the dimeric E. coli peptidyl-prolyl-isomerase FkpA.

We have recently described the existence of a chaperone activity for the dimeric peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase FkpA from the periplasm of Escherichia coli that is independent of its isomerase activity. We have now investigated the molecular mechanism of these two activities in vitro in greater detail. The isomerase activity with a protein substrate (RNaseT1) is characterized by a 100-fold higher k(cat)/K(M) value than with a short tetrapeptide substrate. This enhanced activity with a protein is due to an increased affinity towards the protein substrate mediated by a polypeptide-binding site that is distinct from the active site. The chaperone activity is also mediated by interaction of folding and unfolding intermediates with a binding site that is most likely identical to the polypeptide-binding site which enhances catalysis. Both activities are thus mechanistically related, being based on the transient interaction with this high-affinity polypeptide-binding site. Only the isomerase activity, but not the chaperone activity, with the substrate citrate synthase can be inhibited by FK520. Experiments with the isolated domains of FkpA imply that both the isomerase and the chaperone site are located on the highly conserved FKBP domain. The additional amino-terminal domain mediates the dimerization and thus places the two active sites of the FKBP domains in juxtaposition, such that they can simultaneously interact with a protein, and this is required for full catalytic activity.

Yet another numbering scheme for immunoglobulin variable domains: an automatic modeling and analysis tool.

A common residue numbering scheme for all immunoglobulin variable domains (immunoglobulin light chain lambda (V(lambda)) and kappa (V(kappa)) variable domains, heavy chain variable domains (V(H)) and T-cell receptor alpha (V(alpha)), beta (V(beta)), gamma (V(gamma)) and delta (V(delta)) variable domains) has been devised. Based on the spatial alignment of known three-dimensional structures of immunoglobulin domains, it places the alignment gaps in a way that minimizes the average deviation from the averaged structure of the aligned domains. This residue numbering scheme was applied to the immunoglobulin variable domain structures in the PDB database to automate the extraction of information on structural variations in homologous positions of the different molecules. A number of methods are presented that allow the automated projection of information derived from individual structures or from the comparison of multi-structure alignments onto a graphical representation of the sequence alignment.

Selection, characterization and x-ray structure of anti-ampicillin single-chain Fv fragments from phage-displayed murine antibody libraries.

Single-chain Fv (scFv) antibody libraries were constructed from mice immunized with an ampicillin-bovine serum albumin conjugate. Several antibodies with specificity for intact ampicillin were selected by phage display and characterized. The antibody scFv fragment aL2 binds to intact ampicillin and shows no detectable cross-reactivity with hydrolyzed ampicillin. We determined the X-ray structures of two crystal forms of w.t. aL2, which differ mainly in the side-chain conformation of Trp H109 (according to a new consensus nomenclature Kabat residue number H95) in the extremely short (three residues) CDR H3 and the presence or absence of a well-resolved molecule of 2-methyl-pentane-2,4-diol in the bottom of the binding pocket. Attempts to co-crystallize aL2 with its antigen or to diffuse ampicillin into the wild-type aL2 crystals were unsuccessful, since crystal contacts obstruct the binding pocket. However, a mutant with two point mutations near the N terminus (Gln H6 replaced by Glu and Ala H10 (Kabat H9) replaced by Gly) crystallized in a form compatible with antigen-binding. Although the mutations affect the conformation of framework I, the conformations of the binding pocket of the uncomplexed wild-type aL2 and of the mutant complex were almost identical. The structure explains the specificity of the antibody for intact ampicillin and the degree of cross-reactivity of aL2 with a wide variety of ampicillin analogs. This antibody system will be very useful as a diagnostic reagent for antibiotics use and abuse, as a model for the effect of expression of antibiotic binding molecules in Escherichia coli, and for directed evolution towards high antibiotic resistance.

The influence of the buried glutamine or glutamate residue in position 6 on the structure of immunoglobulin variable domains.

Immunoglobulin V(H) domain frameworks can be grouped into four distinct types, depending on the main-chain conformation of framework 1. Based on the analysis of over 200 X-ray structures representing more than 100 non-redundant V(H) domain sequences, we have come to the conclusion that the marked structural variability of the V(H) framework 1 region is caused by three residues: the buried side-chain of H6, which can be either a glutamate or a glutamine residue, the residue in position H7, which may be proline only if H6 is glutamine, and by H9 (H10 according to a new consensus nomenclature), which has to be either glycine or proline if H6 is a glutamate residue. In natural antibodies, these three residues are encoded in combinations that are compatible with each other and with the rest of the structure and therefore will yield functional molecules. However, the degenerate primer mixtures commonly used for PCR cloning of antibody fragments can and frequently do introduce out-of-context mutations to combinations that can lead to severe reduction of stability, production yield and antigen affinity.

The importance of framework residues H6, H7 and H10 in antibody heavy chains: experimental evidence for a new structural subclassification of antibody V(H) domains.

The N-terminal segment (FR-H1) of the heavy chain (V(H)) of antibodies shows significant conformational variability correlating with the nature of the amino acids H6, H7 and H10 (Kabat H9). In this study, we have established a causal relationship between the local sequence and the structure of this framework region and linked this relationship to important biophysical properties such as affinity, folding yield and stability. We have generated six mutants of the scFv fragment aL2, covering some of the most abundant amino acid combinations in positions H6, H7 and H10 (according to a new consensus nomenclature, Kabat H9). For the aL2 wild-type (w.t.) with the sequence 6(Q)7(P)10(A) and for two of the mutants, the X-ray structures have been determined. The structure of the triple mutant aL2-6(E)7(S)10(G) shows the FR-H1 backbone conformations predicted for this amino acid combination, which is distinctly different from the structure of the w.t, thus supporting our hypothesis that these residues determine the conformation of this segment. The mutant aL2-6(E)7(P)10(G) represents a residue combination not occurring in natural antibody sequences. It shows a completely different, unique structure in the first beta-strand of V(H), not observed in natural Fv fragments and forms a novel type of diabody. Two V(H) domains of the mutant associate by swapping the first beta-strand. Concentration-dependent changes in Trp fluorescence indicate that this dimerization also occurs in solution. The mutations in amino acids H6, H7 and H10 (Kabat H9) influence the dimerization behavior of the scFv and its thermodynamic stability. All the observations reported here have practical implications for the cloning of Fv fragments with degenerate primers, as well as for the design of new antibodies by CDR grafting or synthetic libraries.

Fast selection of antibodies without antigen purification: adaptation of the protein fragment complementation assay to select antigen-antibody pairs.

We have adapted the protein fragment complementation assay (PCA) to the screening and selection of antibodies in the single-chain Fv (scFv) format. In this assay, two interacting proteins (target and antibody) are genetically fused to the two halves of the dissected enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. Binding of the two partners reassembles this enzyme and reconstitutes its activity, thus allowing growth on minimal medium. We have optimized this system with regard to linker length and orientation, and can reach an efficiency for antigen/antibody interactions similar to that with fused leucine zippers. Using several model antibodies specific for peptides and proteins, we show that cognate interactions give rise to about seven orders of magnitude more colonies than non-specific interactions. When transforming mixtures of plasmids encoding different antigens and/or antibodies, all colonies tested contained plasmids encoding cognate pairs. We believe that this system will be very powerful as a routine system for generating antibodies, especially in functional genomics, since it does not require purification and immobilization of the antigen. The identification of an antibody specific for a cDNA or EST-encoded protein will require only cloning, transformation and plating of bacteria.

Crystal structure of the dimeric C-terminal domain of TonB reveals a novel fold.

The TonB-dependent complex of Gram-negative bacteria couples the inner membrane proton motive force to the active transport of iron.siderophore and vitamin B(12) across the outer membrane. The structural basis of that process has not been described so far in full detail. The crystal structure of the C-terminal domain of TonB from Escherichia coli has now been solved by multiwavelength anomalous diffraction and refined at 1.55-A resolution, providing the first evidence that this region of TonB (residues 164-239) dimerizes. Moreover, the structure shows a novel architecture that has no structural homologs among any known proteins. The dimer of the C-terminal domain of TonB is cylinder-shaped with a length of 65 A and a diameter of 25 A. Each monomer contains three beta strands and a single alpha helix. The two monomers are intertwined with each other, and all six beta-strands of the dimer make a large antiparallel beta-sheet. We propose a plausible model of binding of TonB to FhuA and FepA, two TonB-dependent outer-membrane receptors.

Cyclic green fluorescent protein produced in vivo using an artificially split PI-PfuI intein from Pyrococcus furiosus.

A cyclic protein was produced in vivo using the intein from Pyrococcus furiosus PI-PfuI in a novel approach to create a circular permutation of the precursor protein by introducing new termini in the intein domain. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) was cyclized with this method in vivo on milligram scales. There was no by-product of linear or polymerized species isolated, unlike with other in vitro or in vivo cyclization methods utilizing inteins. Cyclized GFP unfolded at half the rate of the linear form upon chemical denaturation and required >2 days in 7 m guanidine hydrochloride until a residual fast folding phase (consistent with a persistent cis-proline) had disappeared. Cyclic GFP might become a novel tool for studying the role of termini and backbone topology in various biological processes such as protein degradation and translocation in vivo as well as in vitro.

Tumor targeting of mono-, di-, and tetravalent anti-p185(HER-2) miniantibodies multimerized by self-associating peptides.

Multimerization of antibody fragments increases the valency and the molecular weight, both identified as key features in the design of the optimal targeting molecule. Here, we report the construction of mono-, di-, and tetrameric variants of the anti-tumor p185(HER-2) single chain Fv fragment 4D5 by fusion of self-associating peptides to the carboxyl terminus. Dimeric miniantibodies with a synthetic helix-turn-helix domain and tetrameric ones with the multimerization domain of the human p53 protein were produced in functional form in the periplasm of Escherichia coli. We have directly compared these molecules and the single-chain Fv fragment in the targeting of SK-OV-3 xenografts. Tetramerization of the 4D5 antibody fragment resulted in increased serum persistence, significantly reduced off-rate, due to the avidity effect, both in surface plasmon resonance measurements on purified p185(HER-2) and on SK-OV-3 cells. The (99m)technetium-tricarbonyl-labeled tetrameric 4D5-p53 miniantibody localized with the highest dose at the tumor and remained stably bound for at least 72 h. The highest total dose was 4.3% injected dose/g after 24 h, whereas the highest tumor-to-blood ratio was found to be 13.5:1 after 48 h, with a total dose of 3.2% injected dose/g. The tetramer shows no higher avidity than the dimer, presumably since the simultaneous binding to more than two antigen molecules on the surface of cells is not possible, and the improvement in performance over the dimer must at least be due in part to the molecular weight. These results demonstrate that multimerization by self-associating peptides can be used for the development of more effective targeting molecules for medical diagnostics and therapy.

Stability engineering of antibody single-chain Fv fragments.

The application of single-chain Fv fragments (scFv) in medicine and biotechnology places great demands on their stability. Only recently has attention been given to the production of highly stable scFvs, and in a number of examples it was found that such fragments indeed perform better during practical applications. The structural parameters influencing scFv stability are now beginning to be elucidated. This review summarizes progress in rational and evolutionary engineering methods, the structural implications of these results, as well as some examples where stability engineering has been successfully applied.

The scFv fragment of the antibody hu4D5-8: evidence for early premature domain interaction in refolding.

Fluorescence spectroscopy and 1H/2H-exchange techniques have been applied to characterize the folding of an scFv fragment, derived from the humanized anti-HER2 antibody hu4D5-8. A stable intermediate, consisting of a native VL domain and an unfolded VH domain, is populated under equilibrium unfolding conditions. A partially structured intermediate, with 1H/2H-exchange protection significantly less than that of the two isolated domains together, is detectable upon refolding the equilibrium-denatured scFv fragment. This means that the domains in the heterodimer do not fold independently. Rather, they associate prematurely before full 1H/2H-exchange protection can be gained. The formation of the native heterodimer from the non-native intermediate is a slow, cooperative process, which is rate-limited by proline cis/trans-isomerization. Unproductive domain association is also detectable after short-term denaturation, i.e. with the proline residues in native conformation. Only a fraction of the short-term denatured protein folds into the native protein in a fast, proline-independent reaction, because of spontaneous proline cis/trans-reisomerization in the early non-native intermediate. The comparison with the previously studied antibody McPC603 has now allowed us to delineate similarities in the refolding pathway of scFv fragments.

Tailoring in vitro evolution for protein affinity or stability.

We describe a rapid and general technology working entirely in vitro to evolve either the affinity or the stability of ligand-binding proteins, depending on the chosen selection pressure. Tailored in vitro selection strategies based on ribosome display were combined with in vitro diversification by DNA shuffling to evolve either the off-rate or thermodynamic stability of single-chain Fv antibody fragments (scFvs). To demonstrate the potential of this method, we chose to optimize two proteins already possessing favorable properties. A scFv with an initial affinity of 1.1 nM (k(off) at 4 degrees C of 10(-4) s(-1)) was improved 30-fold by the use of off-rate selections over a period of several days. As a second example, a generic selection strategy for improved stability exploited the property of ribosome display that the conditions can be altered under which the folding of the displayed protein occurs. We used decreasing redox potentials in the selection step to select for molecules stable in the absence of disulfide bonds. They could be functionally expressed in the reducing cytoplasm, and, when allowed to form disulfides again, their stability had increased to 54 kJ/mol from an initial value of 24 kJ/mol. Sequencing revealed that the evolved mutant proteins had used different strategies of residue changes to adapt to the selection pressure. Therefore, by a combination of randomization and appropriate selection strategies, an in vitro evolution of protein properties in a predictable direction is possible.