Black carbon in urban soils: land use and climate drive variation at the surface.

BACKGROUND: Black carbon (BC) encompasses a range of carbonaceous materials--including soot, char, and charcoal--derived from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. Urban soils can become enriched in BC due to proximity to these combustion sources. We conducted a literature review of BC in urban soils globally and found 26 studies reporting BC and total organic carbon (TOC) content collected to a maximum of 578 cm depth in urban soils across 35 cities and 10 countries. We recorded data on city, climate, and land use/land cover characteristics to examine drivers of BC content and contribution to TOC in soil. RESULTS: All studies were conducted in the northern hemisphere, with 68% of the data points collected in China and the United States. Surface samples (0-20 cm) accounted for 62% of samples in the dataset. Therefore, we focused our analysis on 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm depths. Urban soil BC content ranged from 0-124 mg/g (median = 3 mg/g) at 0-10 cm and from 0-53 mg/g (median = 2.8 mg/g) at 10-20 cm depth. The median proportional contribution of BC to TOC was 23% and 15% at 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm, respectively. Surface soils sampled in industrial land use and near roads had the highest BC contents and proportions, whereas samples from residential sites had among the lowest. Soil BC content decreased with mean annual soil temperature. CONCLUSIONS: Our review indicates that BC comprises a major fraction (nearly one quarter) of the TOC in urban surface soils, yet sampling bias towards the surface could hide the potential for BC storage at depth. Land use emerged as an importer driver of soil BC contents and proportions, whereas land cover effects remain uncertain. Warmer and wetter soils were found to have lower soil BC than cooler and drier soils, differences that likely reflect soil BC loss mechanisms. Additional research on urban soil BC at depth and from diverse climates is critical to better understand the role of cities in the global carbon cycle.

Satellite-based aerosol optical depth estimates over the continental U.S. during the 2020 wildfire season: Roles of smoke and land cover.

Wildfires produce smoke that can affect an area >1000 times the burn extent, with far-reaching human health, ecologic, and economic impacts. Accurately estimating aerosol load within smoke plumes is therefore crucial for understanding and mitigating these impacts. We evaluated the effectiveness of the latest Collection 6.1 MODIS Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) algorithm in estimating aerosol optical depth (AOD) across the U.S. during the historic 2020 wildfire season. We compared satellite-based MAIAC AOD to ground-based AERONET AOD measurements during no-, light-, medium-, and heavy-smoke conditions identified using the Hazard Mapping System Fire and Smoke Product. This smoke product consists of maximum extent smoke polygons digitized by analysts using visible band imagery and classified according to smoke density. We also examined the strength of the correlations between satellite- and ground-based AOD for major land cover types under various smoke density levels. MAIAC performed well in estimating AOD during smoke-affected conditions. Correlations between MAIAC and AERONET AOD were strong for medium- (r = 0.91) and heavy-smoke (r = 0.90) density, and MAIAC estimates of AOD showed little bias relative to ground-based AERONET measurements (normalized mean bias = 3 % for medium, 5 % for heavy smoke). During two high AOD, heavy smoke episodes, MAIAC underestimated ground-based AERONET AOD under mixed aerosol (i.e., smoke and dust; median bias = -0.08) and overestimated AOD under smoke-dominated (median bias = 0.02) aerosol. MAIAC most overestimated ground-based AERONET AOD over barren land (mean NMB = 48 %). Our findings indicate that MODIS MAIAC can provide robust estimates of AOD as smoke density increases in coming years. Increased frequency of mixed aerosol and expansion of developed land could affect the performance of the MAIAC algorithm in the future, however, with implications for evaluating wildfire-associated health and welfare effects and air quality standards.

Soil Black Carbon Increases Under Urban Trees with Road Density and Time: Opportunity Hotspots for Carbon Storage in Urban Ecosystems.

Black carbon (BC) can comprise a significant fraction of the soil carbon pool in cities. However, vegetation cover and human activity influence the spatial distribution of urban soil BC. We quantified soil total carbon (TC), soil organic carbon (SOC), BC, and total nitrogen (TN) in a medium-sized city in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas. Soils were sampled to 20 cm depth from underneath 16 paired Quercus stellata (post oak) trees and open lawns. Effects of vegetation cover, road density, and building age (a proxy for time since development) on soil C and N were analyzed. Soil OC concentrations were higher under post oak trees (5.5%) compared to open lawns (3.6%) at 0-10 cm, but not at 10-20 cm depth. In contrast, soil BC and TN did not differ by vegetation cover. There were significant interaction effects between vegetation cover and road density and vegetation cover and building age on soil BC. At 0-10 cm, soil BC concentrations, stock, and BC/SOC ratios increased more with road density under trees than lawns, indicating enhanced atmospheric BC deposition to tree canopies. Black carbon in tree soils also increased with building age as compared to lawn soils, likely due to higher BC retention under trees, enhanced BC losses under lawns, or both. Our findings show that urban tree soils are localized opportunity hotspots for BC storage in areas with elevated emissions and longer time since development. Conserving and planting urban trees above permeable surfaces and soils could contribute to long-term carbon storage in urban ecosystems.

Shower thoughts: why scientists should spend more time in the rain.

Stormwater is a vital resource and dynamic driver of terrestrial ecosystem processes. However, processes controlling interactions during and shortly after storms are often poorly seen and poorly sensed when direct observations are substituted with technological ones. We discuss how human observations complement technological ones and the benefits of scientists spending more time in the storm. Human observation can reveal ephemeral storm-related phenomena such as biogeochemical hot moments, organismal responses, and sedimentary processes that can then be explored in greater resolution using sensors and virtual experiments. Storm-related phenomena trigger lasting, oversized impacts on hydrologic and biogeochemical processes, organismal traits or functions, and ecosystem services at all scales. We provide examples of phenomena in forests, across disciplines and scales, that have been overlooked in past research to inspire mindful, holistic observation of ecosystems during storms. We conclude that technological observations alone are insufficient to trace the process complexity and unpredictability of fleeting biogeochemical or ecological events without the shower thoughts produced by scientists' human sensory and cognitive systems during storms.

Urban edge trees: Urban form and meteorology drive elemental carbon deposition to canopies and soils.

Urban tree canopies are a significant sink for atmospheric elemental carbon (EC)--an air pollutant that is a powerful climate-forcing agent and threat to human health. Understanding what controls EC deposition to urban trees is therefore important for evaluating the potential role of vegetation in air pollution mitigation strategies. We estimated wet, dry, and throughfall EC deposition for oak trees at 53 sites in Denton, TX. Spatial data and airborne discrete-return LiDAR were used to compute predictors of EC deposition, including urban form characteristics, and meteorologic and topographic factors. Dry and throughfall EC deposition varied 14-fold across this urban ecosystem and exhibited significant variability from spring to fall. Generalized additive modeling and multiple linear regression analyses showed that urban form strongly influenced tree-scale variability in dry EC deposition: traffic count as well as road length and building height within 100-150 m of trees were positively related to leaf-scale dry deposition. Rainfall amount and extreme wind-driven rain from the direction of major pollution sources were significant drivers of throughfall EC. Our findings indicate that complex configurations of roads, buildings, and vegetation produce "urban edge trees" that contribute to heterogeneous EC deposition patterns across urban systems, with implications for greenspace planning.

Wet nitrogen (N) deposition to urban Latin America: filling in the gaps with GEOS-Chem.

In Latin America, atmospheric deposition is a major vector of nitrogen (N) input to urban systems. Yet, measurements of N deposition are sparse, precluding analysis of spatial patterns, temporal trends, and ecosystem impacts. Chemical transport models can be used to fill these gaps in the absence of dense measurements. Here, we evaluate the performance of a global 3-D chemical transport model in simulating spatial and interannual variation in wet inorganic N (NH4-N + NO3-N) deposition across urban areas in Latin America. Monthly wet and dry inorganic N deposition to Latin America were simulated for the period 2006-2010 using the GEOS-Chem Chemical Transport Model. Published estimates of observed wet or bulk inorganic N deposition measured between 2006-2010 were compiled for 16 urban areas and then compared with model output from GEOS-Chem. Observed mean annual inorganic N deposition to the urban study sites ranged from 5.7-14.2 kg ha-1 yr-1, with NH4-N comprising 48-90% of the total. Results show that simulated N deposition was highly correlated with observed N deposition across sites (R2 = 0.83, NMB = -50%). However, GEOS-Chem generally underestimated N deposition to urban areas in Latin America compared to observations. Underestimation due to bulk sampler dry deposition artifacts was considered and improved bias without improving correlation. In contrast to spatial variation, the model did not capture year-to-year variation well. Discrepancies between modeled and observed values exist, in part, because of uncertainties in Latin American N emissions inventories. Our findings indicate that even at coarse spatial resolution, GEOS-Chem can be used to simulate N deposition to urban Latin America, improving understanding of regional deposition patterns and potential ecological effects.

Ambient urban N deposition drives increased biomass and total plant N in two native prairie grass species in the U.S. Southern Great Plains.

Remnants of native tallgrass prairie experience elevated atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition in urban areas, with potential effects on species traits that are important for N cycling and species composition. We quantified bulk (primarily wet) inorganic N (NH4+-N + NO3--N) deposition at six sites along an urban development gradient (6-64% urban) in the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area from April 2014 to October 2015. In addition, we conducted a phytometer experiment with two common native prairie bunchgrass species--one well studied (Schizachyrium scoparium) and one little studied (Nasella leucotricha)--to investigate ambient N deposition effects on plant biomass and tissue quality. Bulk inorganic N deposition ranged from 6.1-9.9 kg ha-1 yr-1, peaked in spring, and did not vary consistently with proportion of urban land within 10 km of the sites. Total (wet + dry) inorganic N deposition estimated using bulk deposition measured in this study and modeled dry deposition was 12.9-18.2 kg ha-1 yr-1. Although the two plant species studied differ in photosynthetic pathway, biomass, and tissue N, they exhibited a maximum 2-3-fold and 2-4-fold increase in total biomass and total plant N, respectively, with 1.6-fold higher bulk N deposition. In addition, our findings indicate that while native prairie grasses may exhibit a positive biomass response to increased N deposition up to ~18 kg ha-1 yr-1, total inorganic N deposition is well above the estimated critical load for herbaceous plant species richness in the tallgrass prairie of the Great Plains ecoregion and thus may negatively affect these plant communities.

Bird feathers are potential biomonitors for airborne elemental carbon.

Birds can serve as effective biomonitors of air pollution, yet few studies have quantified external particulate matter accumulation on bird feathers. Biomonitoring of airborne elemental carbon (EC) is of critical significance because EC is a component of particulate matter with adverse effects on air quality and human health. To assess their effectiveness for use in EC monitoring, we compared EC accumulation on bird feathers at two sites that differed in vehicular traffic volume in an urban environment within the Dallas-Fort Worth Metropolitan Area, USA. Moulted flight feathers from domestic chickens were experimentally exposed to ambient EC pollution for 5 days in two urban microenvironments 1.5 km distant from each other that differed in traffic volume--adjacent to an interstate highway and a university campus bus stop. Feathers near the highway accumulated approximately eight times more EC (307 ± 34 µg m-2 day-1), on average, than feathers near the bus stop (40 ± 9 µg m-2 day-1). These findings indicate that EC accumulation on feathers varies over short distances within urban areas and that bird feathers potentially can be used for biomonitoring airborne EC.

Accuracy of long-term volunteer water monitoring data: A multiscale analysis from a statewide citizen science program.

An increasing number of citizen science water monitoring programs is continuously collecting water quality data on streams throughout the United States. Operating under quality assurance protocols, this type of monitoring data can be extremely valuable for scientists and professional agencies, but in some cases has been of limited use due to concerns about the accuracy of data collected by volunteers. Although a growing body of studies attempts to address accuracy concerns by comparing volunteer data to professional data, rarely has this been conducted with large-scale datasets generated by citizen scientists. This study assesses the relative accuracy of volunteer water quality data collected by the Texas Stream Team (TST) citizen science program from 1992-2016 across the State of Texas by comparing it to professional data from corresponding stations during the same time period. Use of existing data meant that sampling times and protocols were not controlled for, thus professional and volunteer comparisons were refined to samples collected at stations within 60 meters of one another and during the same year. Results from the statewide TST dataset include 82 separate station/year ANOVAs and demonstrate that large-scale, existing volunteer and professional data with unpaired samples can show agreement of ~80% for all analyzed parameters (DO = 77%, pH = 79%, conductivity = 85%). In addition, to assess whether limiting variation within the source datasets increased the level of agreement between volunteers and professionals, data were analyzed at a local scale. Data from a single partner city, with increased controls on sampling times and locations and correction of a systematic bias in DO, confirmed this by showing an even greater agreement of 91% overall from 2009-2017 (DO = 91%, pH = 83%, conductivity = 100%). An experimental sampling dataset was analyzed and yielded similar results, indicating that existing datasets can be as accurate as experimental datasets designed with researcher supervision. Our findings underscore the reliability of large-scale citizen science monitoring datasets already in existence, and their potential value to scientific research and water management programs.

The value of hydrologic information for watershed management programs: The case of Camboriú, Brazil.

Investments in watershed services programs hold the promise to protect and restore ecosystems and water resources. The design and implementation of such programs is often accompanied by hydrologic modeling and monitoring, although the role of hydrologic information in meeting the needs of program managers remains unclear. In the Camboriú watershed, Brazil, we explored the value of hydrologic modeling and monitoring with respect to two dimensions: scientific credibility and use of generated knowledge in the design, implementation, and evaluation of the watershed management program. We used a combination of semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and hydrologic modeling under various levels of data availability to examine when improved models and data availability might build credibility and provide more useful information for decision makers. We found that hydrologic information was not actually used for the detailed design, but rather contributed to broad-scale support of the program by increasing scientific credibility. Model sophistication and data availability improved the credibility of hydrologic information but did not affect actual decisions related to program design. Hydrologic monitoring data were critical for model calibration, and high-resolution land use and land cover data, obtained via remote sensing, affected some model outputs which were not used to design the program. Our study suggests that identifying how hydrologic data will inform decision making should guide the level of effort used in hydrologic modeling and monitoring.

Urban Trees Are Sinks for Soot: Elemental Carbon Accumulation by Two Widespread Oak Species.

Urban trees could represent important short- and long-term landscape sinks for elemental carbon (EC). Therefore, we quantified foliar EC accumulation by two widespread oak tree species-Quercus stellata (post oak) and Quercus virginiana (live oak)-as well as leaf litterfall EC flux to soil from April 2017 to March 2018 in the City of Denton, Texas, within the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area. Post oak trees accumulated 1.9-fold more EC (299 ± 45 mg EC m-2 canopy yr-1) compared to live oak trees (160 ± 31 mg EC m-2 canopy yr-1). However, in the fall, these oak species converged in their EC accumulation rates, with ∼70% of annual accumulation occurring during fall and on leaf surfaces. The flux of EC to the ground via leaf litterfall mirrored leaf-fall patterns, with post oaks and live oaks delivering ∼60% of annual leaf litterfall EC in fall and early spring, respectively. We estimate that post oak and live oak trees in this urban ecosystem potentially accumulate 3.5 t EC yr-1, equivalent to ∼32% of annual vehicular EC emissions from the city. Thus, city trees are significant sinks for EC and represent potential avenues for climate and air quality mitigation in urban areas.

Managing water services in tropical regions: From land cover proxies to hydrologic fluxes.

Watershed investment programs frequently use land cover as a proxy for water-based ecosystem services, an approach based on assumed relationships between land cover and hydrologic outcomes. Water flows are rarely quantified, and unanticipated results are common, suggesting land cover alone is not a reliable proxy for water services. We argue that managing key hydrologic fluxes at the site of intervention is more effective than promoting particular land-cover types. Moving beyond land cover proxies to a focus on hydrologic fluxes requires that programs (1) identify the specific water service of interest and associated hydrologic flux; (2) account for structural and ecological characteristics of the relevant land cover; and, (3) determine key mediators of the target hydrologic flux. Using examples from the tropics, we illustrate how this conceptual framework can clarify interventions with a higher probability of delivering desired water services than with land cover as a proxy.