Long-term radiocarbon variation studies in the air and tree rings of Slovakia.

Fifty-five years of radiocarbon variation studies are reviewed with an emphasis on a better understanding of the impacts of the Bohunice nuclear power plant and fossil fuel CO2 on the atmosphere and biosphere of Slovakia. The maximum Δ14C levels in the air up to about 1200‰ were observed during the 1970s at the Zlkovce monitoring station, which after 2005 decreased to <30‰. A relative decrease in the atmospheric Δ14C levels due to increasing levels of fossil CO2 in the atmosphere has also been significant, for example, in Bratislava down to about -330‰, but after 2005 they were only <50‰ below the Jungfraujoch European clean-air level. The tree-ring data, averaging the annual Δ14C levels for several stations in Slovakia, have been in agreement with the atmospheric data, as well as with the newly established clean-air station at Jasná in central Slovakia. Future 14C levels will depend strongly on fossil CO2 levels in the atmosphere, which will change the bomb 14C era to the fossil CO2 era. New investigations of 14C variations in the atmosphere-biosphere-hydrosphere compartments represent a great challenge for radiocarbon science, important for better understanding of environmental processes, climate change, and impacts of human activities on the total environment. This new era of radiocarbon research will also need new developments in radiocarbon analytical technologies, as further progress in accuracy and precision of results (<1‰) will be needed to meet the new radiocarbon challenges.

Towards an automated data cleaning with deep learning in CRESST.

The CRESST experiment employs cryogenic calorimeters for the sensitive measurement of nuclear recoils induced by dark matter particles. The recorded signals need to undergo a careful cleaning process to avoid wrongly reconstructed recoil energies caused by pile-up and read-out artefacts. We frame this process as a time series classification task and propose to automate it with neural networks. With a data set of over one million labeled records from 68 detectors, recorded between 2013 and 2019 by CRESST, we test the capability of four commonly used neural network architectures to learn the data cleaning task. Our best performing model achieves a balanced accuracy of 0.932 on our test set. We show on an exemplary detector that about half of the wrongly predicted events are in fact wrongly labeled events, and a large share of the remaining ones have a context-dependent ground truth. We furthermore evaluate the recall and selectivity of our classifiers with simulated data. The results confirm that the trained classifiers are well suited for the data cleaning task.

Secular equilibrium assessment in a CaWO4 target crystal from the dark matter experiment CRESST using Bayesian likelihood normalisation.

CRESST is a leading direct detection sub-GeVc-2 dark matter experiment. During its second phase, cryogenic bolometers were used to detect nuclear recoils off the CaWO4 target crystal nuclei. The previously established electromagnetic background model relies on Secular Equilibrium (SE) assumptions. In this work, a validation of SE is attempted by comparing two likelihood-based normalisation results using a recently developed spectral template normalisation method based on Bayesian likelihood. Albeit we find deviations from SE in some cases we conclude that these deviations are artefacts of the fit and that the assumptions of SE is physically meaningful.

Tritium and radiocarbon in the water column of the Red Sea.

Despite being the busiest transient sea in the world due to the Suez Canal, radionuclide distribution studies in seawater and sediment of the Red Sea remain rare. A sampling expedition in the Red Sea was conducted from June 9 to July 6, 2021, visiting a transect of several deep sampling stations located along the central axis of the basin from the Gulf of Aqaba to the southern Red Sea (near Farasan Island, Saudi Arabia). The collected seawater profile samples were analyzed for tritium, radiocarbon and oxygen-18. The observed tritium levels in surface waters of the Red Sea peaked at 0.3-0.4 TU, similar to the values observed in the western Arabian Sea (decay corrected). The values observed at waters below 150 m were around 0.2 TU, however, at depths of 450 and 750 m, tritium minima (<0.2 TU) were observed, which could be associated with a partial return flow of bottom waters from the southern to the northern Red Sea. At two stations at the depth of about 550 m, deep Δ14C minima were observed as well (-4‰ and -10‰), documenting ongoing transport of carbon in the water column, important for sink of anthropogenic carbon.

Hemispheric infiltrative grade II gliomas in adults: association of residual tumour volume and extent of tumour resection with malignant transformation.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluation of the impact of surgical treatment on malignant transformation (MT) of adult supratentorial infiltrative grade II gliomas (G2G) in a series of chemotherapy and radiotherapy-naïve patients. BACKGROUND: Despite G2G are slow-growing tumours, they typically undergo MT with a subsequent fatal disease course. An extensive resection alone likely changes their biological behaviour and defers MT; however, this impact is not unequivocally confirmed. METHODS: Thirty-eight chemotherapy and radiotherapy-naïve adult patients operated from 2005 till 2014 for a G2G were investigated. Based on postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and/or positron emission tomography follow-up (FU) scans, the patients were classified as "transformers" (15 patients in whom MT occurred during the FU-period) and "non-transformers" (23 patients). RESULTS: The follow-up period of "non-transformers" was longer (p <0.0001). After adjustment for known risk factors - age, male sex, astrocytoma histology, preoperative tumour volume, preoperative contrast enhancement and positive isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 gene mutation status - a larger log postoperative tumour volume (p=0.031) and a smaller extent of resection (p=0.0086) were associated with a shorter MT-free survival. CONCLUSION: In our series, less extensive resections were associated with a shorter time to MT. Our data support an adoption of techniques enabling extensive G2G resections, such as intraoperative imaging and awake resections, into everyday routine (Tab. 1, Fig. 2, Ref. 40).

Determination of ultra-trace levels of uranium and thorium in electrolytic copper using radiochemical neutron activation analysis.

Uranium and thorium as natural radioactive elements are present everywhere in the environment. Their trace levels are also present in various materials, such as copper, used as a shielding material in gamma-ray spectrometry, usually located very close to the detector. Ultra-low levels of uranium and thorium in electrolytic copper were determined in this study using radiochemical neutron activation analysis (RNAA) via their induced nuclides U-239/Np-239 and Pa-233, respectively. After irradiation of copper together with uranium and thorium standards, various techniques were used for their separation from the matrix. To isolate of short-lived U-239, solvent extraction in a combination of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in toluene was used. To separate Np-239 and Pa-233, extraction chromatography using TEVA and TK-400 resins was applied. Special attention was paid to the estimation of radiochemical recovery, which was determined in each sample aliquot using U-235, Np-238 and Pa-231 tracers. For quantification of induced nuclides and tracers used in the experiment, gamma-ray spectrometry was used. Obtained results showed that electrolytic copper samples contained impurities of uranium and thorium in ultra-trace levels: up to 45 pg/g (550 nBq/g) for uranium and up to 80 pg/g (330 nBq/g) for thorium. The electrolytic copper also contained impurities of Ag, As, Au, Sb, Se and Zn as observed using the k0-INAA technique.

The neutron component of background of an HPGe detector operating in a surface laboratory.

Investigation of neutron-induced background was carried out by studying interactions of cosmic-ray neutrons with an HPGe detector inside its shield placed on a ground floor of a 3-storey building. The study was conducted experimentally and by Monte Carlo simulations using GEANT4 simulation tool. Detailed analysis of measured background γ-ray spectra showed that many γ-lines visible in the spectra were induced by neutrons. The majority of detected γ-rays originated in germanium, copper, lead and tin. Iron and aluminium components were less important background sources. Inelastic scattering and neutron capture were the most often occurring processes of neutron interactions with the detector and its shielding. The contamination by natural radionuclides, specifically of 40K, 214Pb, 214Bi and 208Tl, was also present in the background spectra. Nevertheless, approximately 35% of 208Tl peak at the energy of 2614.51 keV was produced by inelastic scattering of neutrons on 208Pb nuclei. The experimental background was compared with GEANT4 simulations, which were carried out without and with the shielding layer of the building. The final integral counting rates for measured spectrum in the energy range from 50 keV to 2875 keV was 1.26 ± 0.07 s-1 and for simulated one 1.25 ± 0.13 s-1, indicating very good agreement with the experiment.

Natural radionuclides as background sources in the Modane underground laboratory.

The Modane underground laboratory (LSM) is the deepest operating underground laboratory in Europe. It is located under the Fréjus peak in Savoie Alps in France, with average overburden of 4800 m w. e. (water equivalent), providing low-background environment for experiments in nuclear and particle physics, astrophysics and environmental physics. It is crucial to understand individual sources of background such as residual cosmic-ray flux of high-energy muons, muon-induced neutrons and contributions from radionuclides present in the environment. The identified dominant sources of background are radioactive contamination of construction materials of detectors and laboratory walls, radon contamination of the laboratory air, and neutrons produced in the laboratory. The largest neutron contribution has been identified from (α, n) reactions in low Z materials (10-7-10-4 n s-1 Bq-1) and from spontaneous fission of 238U (1.1× 10-6 n s-1 Bq-1).

Impact of Saharan dust events on radionuclides in the atmosphere, seawater, and sediments of the northwest Mediterranean Sea.

In February 2004, anthropogenic radionuclides (137Cs, 236U, 239Pu and 240Pu), transported from the Sahara Desert, were observed in the Monaco air, and later in water and sediment samples collected at the DYFAMED site in the northwest (NW) Mediterranean Sea. While 236U and 137Cs in Saharan dust particles showed a high solubility in seawater, Pu isotopes were particle reactive in the water column and in the sediment. The impact of the Saharan deposition was found at 0-1.0 cm of the sediment core for 236U and 137Cs, and between 1.0 and 1.5 cm for Pu isotopes. The excess of 236U was observed more in the water column than in the sediment, whereas the 239+240Pu total inventories were comparable in the water column and the sediment. This single-day particle event represented 72% of annual atmospheric deposition in Monaco. At the DYFAMED site, it accounted for 10% (137Cs) and 15% (239+240Pu) activities of sinking particles during the period of the highest mass flux collected at the 200 and 1000 m water depths, and for a significant proportion of the total annual atmospheric input to the NW Mediterranean Sea (28-37% for 137Cs and 34-45% for 239+240Pu). Contributions to the total 137Cs and 239+240Pu sediment inventories were estimated to be 14% and 8%, respectively. The Saharan dust deposition phenomenon (atmospheric input, water column and sediment) offered a unique case to study origin and accumulation rates of radionuclides in the NW Mediterranean Sea.

Geant4-based electromagnetic background model for the CRESST dark matter experiment.

The CRESST (Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers) dark matter search experiment aims for the detection of dark matter particles via elastic scattering off nuclei in CaWO 4 crystals. To understand the CRESST electromagnetic background due to the bulk contamination in the employed materials, a model based on Monte Carlo simulations was developed using the Geant4 simulation toolkit. The results of the simulation are applied to the TUM40 detector module of CRESST-II phase 2. We are able to explain up to ( 68 ± 16 ) % of the electromagnetic background in the energy range between 1 and 40 keV .

Airborne concentrations and chemical considerations of radioactive ruthenium from an undeclared major nuclear release in 2017.

In October 2017, most European countries reported unique atmospheric detections of aerosol-bound radioruthenium (106Ru). The range of concentrations varied from some tenths of µBq·m-3 to more than 150 mBq·m-3 The widespread detection at such considerable (yet innocuous) levels suggested a considerable release. To compare activity reports of airborne 106Ru with different sampling periods, concentrations were reconstructed based on the most probable plume presence duration at each location. Based on airborne concentration spreading and chemical considerations, it is possible to assume that the release occurred in the Southern Urals region (Russian Federation). The 106Ru age was estimated to be about 2 years. It exhibited highly soluble and less soluble fractions in aqueous media, high radiopurity (lack of concomitant radionuclides), and volatility between 700 and 1,000 °C, thus suggesting a release at an advanced stage in the reprocessing of nuclear fuel. The amount and isotopic characteristics of the radioruthenium release may indicate a context with the production of a large 144Ce source for a neutrino experiment.

Potential Source Apportionment and Meteorological Conditions Involved in Airborne 131I Detections in January/February 2017 in Europe.

Traces of particulate radioactive iodine (131I) were detected in the European atmosphere in January/February 2017. Concentrations of this nuclear fission product were very low, ranging 0.1 to 10 µBq m-3 except at one location in western Russia where they reached up to several mBq m-3. Detections have been reported continuously over an 8-week period by about 30 monitoring stations. We examine possible emission source apportionments and rank them considering their expected contribution in terms of orders of magnitude from typical routine releases: radiopharmaceutical production units > sewage sludge incinerators > nuclear power plants > spontaneous fission of uranium in soil. Inverse modeling simulations indicate that the widespread detections of 131I resulted from the combination of multiple source releases. Among them, those from radiopharmaceutical production units remain the most likely. One of them is located in Western Russia and its estimated source term complies with authorized limits. Other existing sources related to 131I use (medical purposes or sewage sludge incineration) can explain detections on a rather local scale. As an enhancing factor, the prevailing wintertime meteorological situations marked by strong temperature inversions led to poor dispersion conditions that resulted in higher concentrations exceeding usual detection limits in use within the informal Ring of Five (Ro5) monitoring network.

Environmental radionuclides as contaminants of HPGe gamma-ray spectrometers: Monte Carlo simulations for Modane underground laboratory.

The main limitation in the high-sensitive HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry has been the detector background, even for detectors placed deep underground. Environmental radionuclides such as 40K and decay products in the 238U and 232Th chains have been identified as the most important radioactive contaminants of construction parts of HPGe gamma-ray spectrometers. Monte Carlo simulations have shown that the massive inner and outer lead shields have been the main contributors to the HPGe-detector background, followed by aluminum cryostat, copper cold finger, detector holder and the lead ring with FET. The Monte Carlo simulated cosmic-ray background gamma-ray spectrum has been by about three orders of magnitude lower than the experimental spectrum measured in the Modane underground laboratory (4800 m w.e.), underlying the importance of using radiopure materials for the construction of ultra-low-level HPGe gamma-ray spectrometers.

Tumour metabolic activity measured by fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for radiotherapy planning as a prognostic factor for locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse whether the maximum standardized uptake value of the positron emission tomography/computed tomography for radiotherapy planning was useful as a prognostic factor for tumour response and survival of patients with locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer. BACKGROUND: Increased 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose uptake by lung cancer cells, measured as the maximum standardized uptake value, has been reported to predict the biologic aggressiveness of both early and advanced non-small cell lung cancer. METHODS: A prospective study was performed in 61 consecutive patients with unresectable stage IA-IIIB of non-small cell lung cancer. The mean age was 65 years. Seventy five percent of patients in the entire group received an induction chemotherapy. The mean dose of radiotherapy was 61Gy. All patients underwent 18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography for radiotherapy planning. RESULTS: Thirty six percent of the patients experienced a complete response and 20 % had a partial tumour response. Forty four percent of the patients suffered from a progressive disease. The maximum standardized uptake value of the primary tumour more than 11.4 was correlated with a worse tumour response (p = 0.0001) and a shorter survival of our patients (p = 0.0109). CONCLUSION: We found a correlation between the maximum standardized uptake value and the patient prognosis and lung cancer aggressiveness (Tab. 3, Fig. 5, Ref. 18).

Anthropogenic 137Cs on atmospheric aerosols in Bratislava and around nuclear power plants in Slovakia.

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) have been one of the sources of anthropogenic radionuclides in the environment. This work combines the results from monitoring stations around NPPs in Slovakia (Mochovce and Jaslovské Bohunice) and academic measurements at the Comenius University campus in Bratislava. Most of the atmospheric 137Cs in this region come from the resuspension of the Chernobyl-derived 137Cs, as well as caesium produced during nuclear weapons testing. By comparison of the obtained results at NPPs with Bratislava data, radiation impacts of the NPPs on the local environments have been estimated to be negligible.

Determination of chemical forms of 14C in liquid discharges from nuclear power plants.

Developments of radioanalytical methods for determination of radiocarbon in wastewaters from nuclear power plants (NPP) with pressurized light water reactors, which would distinguish between the dissolved organic and inorganic forms have been carried out. After preliminary tests, the method was used to process pilot samples from wastewater outlets from the Temelín and Dukovany NPPs (Czech Republic). The results of analysis of pilot water samples collected in 2015 indicate that the instantaneous 14C releases into the water streams would be about 7.10-5 (Temelín) and 4.10-6 (Dukovany) of the total quantity of the 14C liberated into the environment.

Temporal evolution of 137Cs, 237Np, and 239+240Pu and estimated vertical 239+240Pu export in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea.

The evolution of 137Cs, 237Np and 239+240Pu at the DYFAMED station (NW Mediterranean) is discussed in relation to physical processes, downward fluxes of particles, and changes in the main input sources. The data set presented in this study represents the first complete 237Np vertical profiles (0.12-0.27µBqL-1), and constitutes a baseline measurement to assess future changes. A similar behavior of Cs and Np has been evidenced, confirming that Np behaves conservatively. While the 137Cs decrease has been driven by its radioactive decay, the vertical distribution of 237Np has not substantially changed over the last decade. In the absence of recent major inputs, a homogenization of their vertical distribution occurred, partly due to deep convection events that became more intense during the last decade. In contrast, 239+240Pu surface levels in the NW Mediterranean waters have fallen in the past four decades by a factor of 5. This decrease in surface has been balanced by higher concentrations in the deep-water layers. A first estimate of the downward 239+240Pu fluxes in the NW Mediterranean Sea is proposed over more than two decades. This estimation, based on the DYFAMED sediment trap time-series data and published 239+240Pu flux measurements, suggests that sinking particles have accounted for 60-90% of the upper layer (0-200m) Pu inventory loss over the period 1989-2013. The upper layer residence time of Pu is estimated to be ~28years, twice as long as the residence time estimated for the whole western Mediterranean (~15years). This difference highlights the slow removal of Pu in the open waters of the NW Mediterranean and confirms that most of the Pu removal occurs along the coastal margin where sedimentation rates are high.

Carbon and Pu isotopes in Baltic Sea sediments.

Distributions of 137Cs, 239,240Pu, Δ14C and δ13C measured in sediments indicated low 137Cs and 239,240Pu activities in the Curonian Lagoon and higher levels in the open Baltic Sea. Depleted δ13CTOC values were found in the Curonian Lagoon as compared with the open Baltic Sea, while the most depleted Δ14CTOC values were found in the Gotland Deep. The global fallout Pu dominated in the deeper zones of the Baltic Sea, while higher 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios were characteristic of the coastal regions.

Monte Carlo simulation of background characteristics of a HPGe detector operating underground in the Gran Sasso National Laboratory.

Monte Carlo (MC) simulation of background components of an ultra-low background high purity germanium (HPGe) detector operating in a deep underground laboratory was carried out. The results show that the background of the HPGe detector is about two orders of magnitude higher than the MC prediction when accounting only for cosmic-ray induced background. The difference is due to natural radioactivity in the parts surrounding the Ge detector. To get reasonable agreement between MC simulations and the experiment, a contamination in the parts surrounding the Ge crystal from 40K, 208Tl and 214Bi of 0.1mBqkg-1 was required to include in the simulations.

Impact of the Fukushima accident on tritium, radiocarbon and radiocesium levels in seawater of the western North Pacific Ocean: A comparison with pre-Fukushima situation.

Tritium, radiocarbon and radiocesium concentrations in water column samples in coastal waters offshore Fukushima and in the western North Pacific Ocean collected in 2011-2012 during the Ka'imikai-o-Kanaloa (KoK) cruise are compared with other published results. The highest levels in surface seawater were observed for 134Cs and 137Cs in seawater samples collected offshore Fukushima (up to 1.1 Bq L-1), which represent an increase by about three orders of magnitude when compared with the pre-Fukushima concentration. Tritium levels were much lower (up to 0.15 Bq L-1), representing an increase by about a factor of 6. The impact on the radiocarbon distribution was measurable, but the observed levels were only by about 9% above the global fallout background. The 137Cs (and similarly 134Cs) inventory in the water column of the investigated western North Pacific region was (2.7 ± 0.4) PBq, while for 3H it was only (0.3 ± 0.2) PBq. Direct releases of highly contaminated water from the damaged Fukushima NPP, as well as dry and wet depositions of these radionuclides over the western North Pacific considerably changed their distribution patterns in seawater. Presently we can distinguish Fukushima labeled waters from global fallout background thanks to short-lived 134Cs. However, in the long-term perspective when 134Cs will decay, new distribution patterns of 3H, 14C and 137Cs in the Pacific Ocean should be established for future oceanographic and climate change studies in the Pacific Ocean.