Citizen scientists filling knowledge gaps of phosphate pollution dynamics in rural areas.

In situ monitoring is fundamental to manage eutrophication in rivers and streams. However, in recent decades, the frequency and spatial coverage of regulatory monitoring have often been reduced due to funding and infrastructure limitations. This reduction has made it impossible to provide adequate coverage for most water bodies. In this study, trained citizen scientists filled spatial and temporal gaps in agency monitoring across a major catchment in rural England. By integrating data from citizen scientists, regulatory agencies, and the local water company, it was possible to demonstrate the opportunities for hypothesis-based citizen scientist monitoring to identify continuous and event-driven sources of phosphate pollution. Local citizen scientists effectively covered important spatial gaps, investigating river conditions both upstream and downstream of suspected pollution point sources, improving the identification of their temporal dynamics. When combined with long-term monitoring data from regulatory agencies, it became possible to identify areas within the catchment that exhibited increased phosphate concentrations during periods of low river discharge (summer). Inter-annual trends and anomaly detection suggested that continuous pollution sources dominated over event-driven sources in many sub-basins, allowing for the prioritisation of mitigation actions. This study highlights the opportunity for citizen scientists to fill gaps in regulatory monitoring efforts and contribute to the improved management of eutrophication in rural catchments.

Discovery of N-Ethyl-4-[2-(4-fluoro-2,6-dimethyl-phenoxy)-5-(1-hydroxy-1-methyl-ethyl)phenyl]-6-methyl-7-oxo-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridine-2-carboxamide (ABBV-744), a BET Bromodomain Inhibitor with Selectivity for the Second Bromodomain.

The BET family of proteins consists of BRD2, BRD3, BRD4, and BRDt. Each protein contains two distinct bromodomains (BD1 and BD2). BET family bromodomain inhibitors under clinical development for oncology bind to each of the eight bromodomains with similar affinities. We hypothesized that it may be possible to achieve an improved therapeutic index by selectively targeting subsets of the BET bromodomains. Both BD1 and BD2 are highly conserved across family members (>70% identity), whereas BD1 and BD2 from the same protein exhibit a larger degree of divergence (∼40% identity), suggesting selectivity between BD1 and BD2 of all family members would be more straightforward to achieve. Exploiting the Asp144/His437 and Ile146/Val439 sequence differences (BRD4 BD1/BD2 numbering) allowed the identification of compound 27 demonstrating greater than 100-fold selectivity for BRD4 BD2 over BRD4 BD1. Further optimization to improve BD2 selectivity and oral bioavailability resulted in the clinical development compound 46 (ABBV-744).

Selective inhibition of the BD2 bromodomain of BET proteins in prostate cancer.

Proteins of the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) domain family are epigenetic readers that bind acetylated histones through their bromodomains to regulate gene transcription. Dual-bromodomain BET inhibitors (DbBi) that bind with similar affinities to the first (BD1) and second (BD2) bromodomains of BRD2, BRD3, BRD4 and BRDt have displayed modest clinical activity in monotherapy cancer trials. A reduced number of thrombocytes in the blood (thrombocytopenia) as well as symptoms of gastrointestinal toxicity are dose-limiting adverse events for some types of DbBi1-5. Given that similar haematological and gastrointestinal defects were observed after genetic silencing of Brd4 in mice6, the platelet and gastrointestinal toxicities may represent on-target activities associated with BET inhibition. The two individual bromodomains in BET family proteins may have distinct functions7-9 and different cellular phenotypes after pharmacological inhibition of one or both bromodomains have been reported10,11, suggesting that selectively targeting one of the bromodomains may result in a different efficacy and tolerability profile compared with DbBi. Available compounds that are selective to individual domains lack sufficient potency and the pharmacokinetics properties that are required for in vivo efficacy and tolerability assessment10-13. Here we carried out a medicinal chemistry campaign that led to the discovery of ABBV-744, a highly potent and selective inhibitor of the BD2 domain of BET family proteins with drug-like properties. In contrast to the broad range of cell growth inhibition induced by DbBi, the antiproliferative activity of ABBV-744 was largely, but not exclusively, restricted to cell lines of acute myeloid leukaemia and prostate cancer that expressed the full-length androgen receptor (AR). ABBV-744 retained robust activity in prostate cancer xenografts, and showed fewer platelet and gastrointestinal toxicities than the DbBi ABBV-07514. Analyses of RNA expression and chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing revealed that ABBV-744 displaced BRD4 from AR-containing super-enhancers and inhibited AR-dependent transcription, with less impact on global transcription compared with ABBV-075. These results underscore the potential value of selectively targeting the BD2 domain of BET family proteins for cancer therapy.

Discovery and optimization of novel constrained pyrrolopyridone BET family inhibitors.

Novel conformationally constrained BET bromodomain inhibitors have been developed. These inhibitors were optimized in two similar, yet distinct chemical series, the 6-methyl-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridin-7(6H)-ones (A) and the 1-methyl-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridin-7(6H)-ones (B). Each series demonstrated excellent activity in binding and cellular assays, and lead compounds from each series demonstrated significant efficacy in in vivo tumor xenograft models.

Highlights of the Structure-Activity Relationships of Benzimidazole Linked Pyrrolidines Leading to the Discovery of the Hepatitis C Virus NS5A Inhibitor Pibrentasvir (ABT-530).

Curative interferon and ribavirin sparing treatments for hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients require a combination of mechanistically orthogonal direct acting antivirals. A shared component of these treatments is usually an HCV NS5A inhibitor. First generation FDA approved treatments, including the component NS5A inhibitors, do not exhibit equivalent efficacy against HCV virus genotypes 1-6. In particular, these first generation NS5A inhibitors tend to select for viral drug resistance. Ombitasvir is a first generation HCV NS5A inhibitor included as a key component of Viekira Pak for the treatment of patients with HCV genotype 1 infection. Since the launch of next generation HCV treatments, functional cure for genotype 1-6 HCV infections has been achieved, as well as shortened treatment duration across a wider spectrum of genotypes. In this paper, we show how we have modified the anchor, linker, and end-cap architecture of our NS5A inhibitor design template to discover a next generation NS5A inhibitor pibrentasvir (ABT-530), which exhibits potent inhibition of the replication of wild-type genotype 1-6 HCV replicons, as well as improved activity against replicon variants demonstrating resistance against first generation NS5A inhibitors.

Synthesis and Biological Characterization of Aryl Uracil Inhibitors of Hepatitis C Virus NS5B Polymerase: Discovery of ABT-072, a trans-Stilbene Analog with Good Oral Bioavailability.

ABT-072 is a non-nucleoside HCV NS5B polymerase inhibitor that was discovered as part of a program to identify new direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) for the treatment of HCV infection. This compound was identified during a medicinal chemistry effort to improve on an original lead, inhibitor 1, which we described in a previous publication. Replacement of the amide linkage in 1 with a trans-olefin resulted in improved compound permeability and solubility and provided much better pharmacokinetic properties in preclinical species. Replacement of the dihydrouracil in 1 with an N-linked uracil provided better potency in the genotype 1 replicon assay. Results from phase 1 clinical studies supported once-daily oral dosing with ABT-072 in HCV infected patients. A phase 2 clinical study that combined ABT-072 with the HCV protease inhibitor ABT-450 provided a sustained virologic response at 24 weeks after dosing (SVR24) in 10 of 11 patients who received treatment.

Discovery of N-(4-(2,4-Difluorophenoxy)-3-(6-methyl-7-oxo-6,7-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-c]pyridin-4-yl)phenyl)ethanesulfonamide (ABBV-075/Mivebresib), a Potent and Orally Available Bromodomain and Extraterminal Domain (BET) Family Bromodomain Inhibitor.

The development of bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) bromodomain inhibitors and their examination in clinical studies, particularly in oncology settings, has garnered substantial recent interest. An effort to generate novel BET bromodomain inhibitors with excellent potency and drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) properties was initiated based upon elaboration of a simple pyridone core. Efforts to develop a bidentate interaction with a critical asparagine residue resulted in the incorporation of a pyrrolopyridone core, which improved potency by 9-19-fold. Additional structure-activity relationship (SAR) efforts aimed both at increasing potency and improving pharmacokinetic properties led to the discovery of the clinical candidate 63 (ABBV-075/mivebresib), which demonstrates excellent potency in biochemical and cellular assays, advantageous exposures and half-life both in animal models and in humans, and in vivo efficacy in mouse models of cancer progression and inflammation.

Fragment-Based, Structure-Enabled Discovery of Novel Pyridones and Pyridone Macrocycles as Potent Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal Domain (BET) Family Bromodomain Inhibitors.

Members of the BET family of bromodomain containing proteins have been identified as potential targets for blocking proliferation in a variety of cancer cell lines. A two-dimensional NMR fragment screen for binders to the bromodomains of BRD4 identified a phenylpyridazinone fragment with a weak binding affinity (1, Ki = 160 µM). SAR investigation of fragment 1, aided by X-ray structure-based design, enabled the synthesis of potent pyridone and macrocyclic pyridone inhibitors exhibiting single digit nanomolar potency in both biochemical and cell based assays. Advanced analogs in these series exhibited high oral exposures in rodent PK studies and demonstrated significant tumor growth inhibition efficacy in mouse flank xenograft models.

Preclinical Characterization of BET Family Bromodomain Inhibitor ABBV-075 Suggests Combination Therapeutic Strategies.

ABBV-075 is a potent and selective BET family bromodomain inhibitor that recently entered phase I clinical trials. Comprehensive preclinical characterization of ABBV-075 demonstrated broad activity across cell lines and tumor models, representing a variety of hematologic malignancies and solid tumor indications. In most cancer cell lines derived from solid tumors, ABBV-075 triggers prominent G1 cell-cycle arrest without extensive apoptosis. In this study, we show that ABBV-075 efficiently triggers apoptosis in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and multiple myeloma cells. Apoptosis induced by ABBV-075 was mediated in part by modulation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, exhibiting synergy with the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax in preclinical models of AML. In germinal center diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, BCL-2 levels or venetoclax sensitivity predicted the apoptotic response to ABBV-075 treatment. In vivo combination studies uncovered surprising benefits of low doses of ABBV-075 coupled with bortezomib and azacitidine treatment, despite the lack of in vitro synergy between ABBV-075 and these agents. The in vitro/in vivo activities of ABBV-075 described here may serve as a useful reference to guide the development of ABBV-075 and other BET family inhibitors for cancer therapy. Cancer Res; 77(11); 2976-89. ©2017 AACR.

Methylpyrrole inhibitors of BET bromodomains.

An NMR fragment screen for binders to the bromodomains of BRD4 identified 2-methyl-3-ketopyrroles 1 and 2. Elaboration of these fragments guided by structure-based design provided lead molecules with significant activity in a mouse tumor model. Further modifications to the methylpyrrole core provided compounds with improved properties and enhanced activity in a mouse model of multiple myeloma.

Varying Influences of Aldosterone on the Plasma Potassium Concentration in Blacks and Whites.

BACKGROUND: Aldosterone acts to restrain the extracellular potassium (K+) concentration. Blacks have on average lower plasma aldosterone concentrations (PACs) than Whites. Whether this ethnic difference is associated with similar changes in the concentration of K+ is unclear. METHODS: Subjects were Blacks and Whites from an observational study of blood pressure regulation. PAC was known to be significantly lower in Blacks than Whites. We sought to test the hypothesis that the concentration of K+ remains constant despite variability in PAC. Initial enrollment took place in childhood in 1986. Some of the original enrollees were studied again in adulthood: 160 healthy Blacks and 271 healthy Whites (ages 5 to 39 years; all were studied as children and as adults). RESULTS: Plasma renin activity [a biomarker of angiotensin II and, more proximally, extracellular fluid volume (ECFV)] and PAC were lower in Blacks (P < 0.0354 and P < 0.001, respectively, for all ages). At the same time no ethnic difference in levels of K+ was observed regardless of age. Plasma K+ concentration and PAC associated differently based on ethnicity: PAC increased in Blacks by 1.5-2.0 and in Whites by 2.3-3.0 ng/dl per mmol/l increase in K+ (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Lower aldosterone levels in Blacks did not translate into higher K+ concentrations. We speculate that reaching the right concentration of K+ was an endpoint of aldosterone production in the presence of varying levels of ECFV and angiotensin II.

Discovery of ABT-267, a pan-genotypic inhibitor of HCV NS5A.

We describe here N-phenylpyrrolidine-based inhibitors of HCV NS5A with excellent potency, metabolic stability, and pharmacokinetics. Compounds with 2S,5S stereochemistry at the pyrrolidine ring provided improved genotype 1 (GT1) potency compared to the 2R,5R analogues. Furthermore, the attachment of substituents at the 4-position of the central N-phenyl group resulted in compounds with improved potency. Substitution with tert-butyl, as in compound 38 (ABT-267), provided compounds with low-picomolar EC50 values and superior pharmacokinetics. It was discovered that compound 38 was a pan-genotypic HCV inhibitor, with an EC50 range of 1.7-19.3 pM against GT1a, -1b, -2a, -2b, -3a, -4a, and -5a and 366 pM against GT6a. Compound 38 decreased HCV RNA up to 3.10 log10 IU/mL during 3-day monotherapy in treatment-naive HCV GT1-infected subjects and is currently in phase 3 clinical trials in combination with an NS3 protease inhibitor with ritonavir (r) (ABT-450/r) and an NS5B non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitor (ABT-333), with and without ribavirin.

Discovery of pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-based inhibitors of HCV NS5A.

Efforts to improve the genotype 1a potency and pharmacokinetics of earlier naphthyridine-based HCV NS5A inhibitors resulted in the discovery of a novel series of pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine compounds, which displayed potent inhibition of HCV genotypes 1a and 1b in the replicon assay. SAR in this system revealed that the introduction of amides bearing an additional 'E' ring provided compounds with improved potency and pharmacokinetics. Introduction of a chiral center on the amide portion resulted in the observation of a stereochemical dependence for replicon potency and provided a site for the attachment of functional groups useful for improving the solubility of the series. Compound 21 was selected for administration in an HCV-infected chimpanzee. Observation of a robust viral load decline provided positive proof of concept for inhibition of HCV replication in vivo for the compound series.

Imaging of human mesenchymal stromal cells: homing to human brain tumors.

Human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSC) can be used as a drug delivery vehicle for the treatment of GBM. However, tracking the migration and distribution of these transplanted cells is necessary to interpret therapeutic efficacy. We compared three labeling techniques for their ability to track the migration of transplanted hMSC in an orthotopic mouse xenograft model. hMSC were labeled with three different imaging tags (fluorescence, luciferase or ferumoxide) for imaging by fluorescence, bioluminescence or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), respectively. hMSC were labeled for all imaging modalities without the use of transfection agents. The labeling efficacy of the tags was confirmed, followed by in vitro and in vivo migration assays to track hMSC migration towards U87 glioma cells. Our results confirmed that the labeled hMSC retained their migratory ability in vitro, similar to unlabeled hMSC. In addition, labeled hMSC migrated towards the U87 tumor site, demonstrating their retention of tumor tropism. hMSC tumor tropism was confirmed by all three imaging modalities; however, MRI provides both real time assessment and the high resolution needed for clinical studies. Our findings suggest that ferumoxide labeling of hMSC is feasible, does not alter their migratory ability and allows detection by MRI. Non invasive tracking of transplanted therapeutic hMSC in the brain will allow further development of human cell based therapies.

Inhibitors of hepatitis C virus polymerase: synthesis and biological characterization of unsymmetrical dialkyl-hydroxynaphthalenoyl-benzothiadiazines.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS5B polymerase is essential for viral replication and has been a prime target for drug discovery research. Our efforts directed toward the discovery of HCV polymerase inhibitors resulted in the identification of unsymmetrical dialkyl-hydroxynaphthalenoyl-benzothiadiazines 2 and 3. The most active compound displayed activity in genotypes 1a and 1b polymerase and replicon cell culture inhibition assays at subnanomolar and low nanomolar concentrations, respectively. It also displayed an excellent pharmacokinetic profile in rats, with a plasma elimination half-life after intravenous dosing of 4.5 h, oral bioavailability of 77%, and a peak liver concentration of 21.8 microg/mL.

Identification of halosalicylamide derivatives as a novel class of allosteric inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase.

Halosalicylamide derivatives were identified from high-throughput screening as potent inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase. The subsequent structure and activity relationship revealed the absolute requirement of the salicylamide moiety for optimum activity. Methylation of either the hydroxyl group or the amide group of the salicylamide moiety abolished the activity while the substitutions on both phenyl rings are acceptable. The halosalicylamide derivatives were shown to be non-competitive with respect to elongation nucleotide and demonstrated broad genotype activity against genotype 1-3 HCV NS5B polymerases. Inhibitor competition studies indicated an additive binding mode to the initiation pocket that is occupied by the thiadiazine class of compounds and an additive binding mode to the elongation pocket that is occupied by diketoacids, but a mutually exclusive binding mode with respect to the allosteric thumb pocket that is occupied by the benzimidazole class of inhibitors. Therefore, halosalicylamides represent a novel class of allosteric inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase.

Effects of glucose toxicity and islet purity on in vivo magnetic resonance imaging of transplanted pancreatic islets.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic islet transplantation has recently emerged as a powerful clinical modality to restore normoglycemia in diabetic patients. Despite the success of the Edmonton protocol, these patients still experience a significant islet loss immediately after transplantation. Noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for longitudinal monitoring of graft loss providing that islets are labeled with a magnetically "visible" contrast agent. To fully interpret the imaging data, it is critical to investigate factors normally present during clinical transplantation and influencing MRI of transplanted islets. METHODS: Here, we focused on both the effect of hyperglycemia and the effect of contaminating nonendocrine tissue, which is always present in islet preparations, on MRI imaging of islet grafts. Human pancreatic islets labeled with Feridex were transplanted in diabetic and healthy animals. Separate groups of animals were transplanted with Feridex-labeled pure and nonpure (50% islets and 50% nonendocrine tissue) preparations. The fate of the graft in all groups was monitored by in vivo MRI. RESULTS: We found that diabetic animals with transplanted islets showed a significantly higher rate of islet death than their healthy counterparts on in vivo MR images. Interestingly, transplantation of islets contaminated with nonendocrine tissue did not have any significant influence on MR images, presumably because of a low labeling rate of this tissue and a fast rate of its disappearance after transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: We believe that this study serves as yet another step on our way to clinical use of in vivo imaging of islet transplantation.

Des-A-ring benzothiadiazines: inhibitors of HCV genotype 1 NS5B RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

In our program to discover non-nucleoside, small molecule inhibitors of genotype 1 HCV polymerase, we investigated a series of promising analogs based on a benzothiadiazine screening hit that contains an ABCD ring system. After demonstrating that a methylsulfonylamino D-ring substituent increased the enzyme potency into the low nanomolar range, we explored a minimum core required for activity by truncating to a three-ring system. Described herein are the syntheses and structure-activity relationship of a set of inhibitors lacking the A-ring of an ABCD ring system. We observed that small aromatic rings and alkenyl groups appended to the 5-position of the B-ring were optimal, resulting in inhibitors with low nanomolar potencies.

The effect of chronic lorazepam administration in aging mice.

To assess benzodiazepine tolerance in aged animals, lorazepam or vehicle was administered chronically to male Crl: CD-1(ICR)BR mice. Pharmacodynamic and neurochemical endpoints were examined on days 1 and 14 of drug administration. There was no age-related significant difference in plasma lorazepam levels. Young and middle-aged animals demonstrated behavioral tolerance to lorazepam, while the aged animals showed a similar trend which failed to reach significance. In addition, aged animals also showed a trend toward tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of lorazepam. There were no changes in alpha1 mRNA levels in cortex or hippocampus following administration of lorazepam when compared to vehicle-treated animals in any age group. Aged animals, however, had an initial increase in alpha1 mRNA expression in cortex and hippocampus on day 1 of vehicle treatment followed by decreased expression on day 14. These age-related changes were abolished by lorazepam administration. In summary, age-related sensitivity to the effects of lorazepam was not demonstrated in the present study. However, comparison of these data to other studies indicates that the effect of chronic benzodiazepine treatment may be specific to the benzodiazepine administered, the technique used to quantify mRNA expression changes, the subunits of the GABA(A) receptor investigated and the brain region analyzed. The phenomenon of benzodiazepine sensitivity in the elderly is an area of research which remains controversial and may well be compound specific. Determining benzodiazepines that do not produce pharmacodynamic sensitivity, such as lorazepam, may allow more careful prescribing and dosing of these drugs, and perhaps even the development of specific agents which could avoid this sensitivity.