Effects of Linkers and Substitutions on Multitarget Directed Ligands for Alzheimer's Diseases: Emerging Paradigms and Strategies.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is multifactorial, progressive and the most predominant cause of cognitive impairment and dementia worldwide. The current "one-drug, one-target" approach provides only symptomatic relief to the condition but is unable to cure the disease completely. The conventional single-target therapeutic approach might not always induce the desired effect due to the multifactorial nature of AD. Hence, multitarget strategies have been proposed to simultaneously knock out multiple targets involved in the development of AD. Herein, we provide an overview of the various strategies, followed by the multitarget-directed ligand (MTDL) development, rationale designs and efficient examples. Furthermore, the effects of the linkers and substitutional functional groups on MTDLs against various targets of AD and their modes of action are also discussed.

Benzimidazole-based fluorophores for the detection of amyloid fibrils with higher sensitivity than Thioflavin-T.

Protein aggregation into amyloid fibrils is a key feature of a multitude of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Prion disease. To detect amyloid fibrils, fluorophores with high sensitivity and better efficiency coupled with the low toxicity are in high demand even to date. In this pursuit, we have unveiled two benzimidazole-based fluorescence sensors ([C15 H15 N3 ] (C1) and [C16 H16 N3 O2 ] (C2), which possess exceptional affinity toward different amyloid fibrils in its submicromolar concentration (8 × 10-9  M), whereas under a similar concentration, the gold standard Thioflavin-T (ThT) fails to bind with amyloid fibrils. These fluorescent markers bind to α-Syn amyloid fibrils as well as amyloid fibrils forming other proteins/peptides including Aß42 amyloid fibrils. The 1 H-15 N heteronuclear quantum correlation spectroscopy nuclear magnetic resonance data collected on wild-type α-Syn monomer with and without the fluorophores (C1 and C2) reveal that there is weak or no interactions between C1 or C2 with residues in α-Syn monomer, which indirectly reflects the specific binding ability of C1 and C2 to the α-Syn amyloid fibrils. Detailed studies further suggest that C1 and C2 can detect/bind with the α-Syn amyloid fibril as low as 100 × 10-9  M. Extremely low or no cytotoxicity is observed for C1 and C2 and they do not interfere with α-Syn fibrillation kinetics, unlike ThT. Both C1/C2 not only shows selective binding with amyloid fibrils forming various proteins/peptides but also displays excellent affinity and selectivity toward α-Syn amyloid aggregates in SH-SY5Y cells and Aß42 amyloid plaques in animal brain tissues. Overall, our data show that the developed dyes could be used for the detection of amyloid fibrils including α-Syn and Aß42 amyloids with higher sensitivity as compared to currently used ThT.

Scrutinizing the DNA damaging and antimicrobial abilities of triazole appended metal complexes.

New mononuclear transition metal complexes 1-12 bearing the bioactive triazole analogues were synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis and spectroscopic techniques. The interaction of calf thymus DNA (CT-DNA) with the synthesized compounds was studied at physiological pH by spectrophotometric, spectrofluorometric, cyclic voltammetry, and viscometric techniques. The entire DNA binding results suggested the intercalative mode of binding for the synthesized compounds. Interestingly, the binding strength of the complexes is found to be greater than that of the free ligands. Among the complexes explored, complex 5 reveals strong hypochromism and a slight red shift as compared to the other complexes highlighting its higher DNA binding propensity. The intrinsic binding constant values of the complexes compared to cisplatin reveal that all the complexes are greater in magnitude than that of cisplatin. Fluorescence titrations show that the Cu(II) complexes have the ability to displace DNA-bound ethidium bromide. Also, these compounds induce cleavage in pBR322 plasmid DNA as indicated in gel electrophoresis and exhibit excellent nuclease activity in the presence of H2O2. Moreover, the complexes were screened for in vitro antimicrobial activity along with free ligands and solvent control. The outcome is that the complexes possess good activity than the free ligands. These complexes may have further scope in developing them into antimicrobial drugs and DNA probes.

Exploring the photochemosensitivity by novel cysteine-based mixed ligand complexes.

A new series of cysteine-based metal(II) complexes with 2,2'-bipyridine or 1,10-phenanthroline as co-ligand have been prepared and characterized. Their DNA binding and cleavage properties have been studied. The analytical and spectroscopic data of complexes 1-18 reveal that the complexes adopt an octahedral geometry around the central metal ion in which the cysteine is coordinated through NS and NN atoms, respectively. Spectroscopic titration and viscosity measurements reveal that the complexes bind to DNA through an intercalative mode. Electrophoresis measurements exhibit that they cleave pBR322 DNA efficiently in the presence of 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), probably via hydrolytic mechanism with the involvement of (•)OH. The in vitro anticancer activities indicate that the Cu(II) complexes are active against four selected human tumor cell lines. Furthermore, it is remarkable that all the complexes exhibit significant photocytotoxicity against human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7) with a potency more than the widely used drugs photofrin and cisplatin indicating that they have the potential to act as effective anticancer drugs in a dose-dependent manner.

Persistent DNA binding, cleavage performance and eco-friendly catalytic nature of novel complexes having 2-aminobenzophenone precursor.

This paper describes the synthesis of four novel bidentate metal(II) complexes having 2-aminobenzophenone precursor and a co-ligand (anthranilic acid). They are characterized by the usual spectral and analytical data. They adopt octahedral geometrical arrangements around the metal ions which have been confirmed by electronic absorption data. Moreover, the EPR study of Cu(II) complex has provided supportive evidence to the conclusion drawn on the basis of electronic spectrum and magnetic moment value. Powder XRD and SEM studies show that all the complexes are microcrystalline with homogenous morphology. The interaction of these complexes with CT-DNA has been explored by UV-absorption, fluorescence, viscosity, CV and CD techniques which reveal that the complexes could bind to CT-DNA through intercalation. The oxidative cleavage of the metal complexes with pBR322 DNA has also been investigated by gel electrophoresis. Moreover, the antimicrobial bustle shows that all metal chelates have superior activity than the free Schiff base ligand. The catalytic activity of the complexes has been evaluated towards the oxidation of aniline. All the complexes exhibit significant catalytic activity. Among them Cu(II) complex exhibits better catalytic activity than others. This catalytic process occurs at room temperature and it proceeds in water medium which suggests that this is an eco-friendly process.

Targeting protein kinase and DNA molecules by diimine-phthalate complexes in antiproliferative activity.

The serendipitous discovery of the anticancer drug cisplatin cemented medicinal inorganic chemistry as an independent discipline in 1960s. DNA and protein kinases are one of the major intracellular targets of many anticancer drugs. It is thus highly desirable to develop metal complexes, either by interacting with DNA or to target alternative cellular machinery such as protein kinases to provide a more effective means of monitoring disease progression. In this study we report the synthesis and characterization of few novel Cu(II) and Zn(II) Knoevenagel condensed metallointercalators incorporating phthalic acid. The intercalation behavior of the complexes with DNA is confirmed by spectral and analytical experiments. Due to the promising performance of DNA interaction efficacy of Cu(II) complexes 1-4, their in vitro and in vivo anticancer properties are explored on various cancerous cell lines which reveal that they exhibit substantial anticancer activity without affecting the normal cells. It is found that the complex 1 induces apoptosis in Hep G2 cells. Theoretically, DFT is used to optimize the Cu(II) complexes 1-4 to explore their quantum mechanical properties and to carry out affinity studies against cyclin dependant kinase 2 (CDK2) to understand atomic level interactions. Further, the complex-receptor stability is confirmed by molecular dynamics.

Investigation of in vitro anticancer and DNA strap interactions in live cells using carboplatin type Cu(II) and Zn(II) metalloinsertors.

A series of carboplatin type Cu(II) and Zn(II) metalloinsertors (1-8) having ß-diketone analogues and biologically significant cyclobutane-1,1-dicarboxylic acid have been synthesized and characterized by spectral and analytical methods. The binding and cleavage propensity of these metalloinsertors on DNA and their cytotoxic effects in live cells have been explored. From the gel electrophoresis study, it is observed that the complexes 1-8 cleave pBR322 DNA via a hydrolytic mechanism induced by hydroxyl radical scavengers, DMSO and EtOH as the reactive oxygen species (ROS). In vivo antitumor efficacy has been studied on EAC tumor bearing mice which is assessed by mean survival time, effect on hematological parameters and solid tumor volume. The results strongly support that complex 1 shows potent antitumor effect against EAC and higher than the standard drug carboplatin. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of the complexes, screened on a panel of human cancerous cell lines viz., human cervical cancer cells (HeLa), human breast adenocarcinoma cells (MCF-7), human laryngeal epithelial carcinoma cells (HEp-2), human liver carcinoma cells (Hep G2) and non-cancerous NIH 3T3 mouse embryonic fibroblasts cell lines, reveals that complex 1 exhibits a better anticancer activity than other complexes and standards.

Photo biological activation of NSO donor mixed-ligand complexes: in vivo and preclinical perspectives.

Pyrazolone incorporating N-acetylcysteine (NAC) mixed-ligand complexes are described as promising anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, SODs mimetic and cytotoxic compounds possibly due to its antioxidant profile. In this study, we have evaluated the pharmacologic activity, antioxidant and toxicological profiles of compounds (1-6). Among them, compounds 1 and 4 were haemobiocompatible than the others. Both complexes 1 and 4 display efficient photo-nuclease activity upon irradiation with UV-A light of 365 nm and red light of 647 nm as compared with others. Mechanistic studies reveal that the DNA cleavage oxidative pathway involves H2O2 and singlet oxygen as the reactive oxygen species. Interestingly, both compounds 1 and 4, show non-toxic effects in vitro to human normal lymphocyte cells, revealing that they are selective in killing only the cancer cells as expected for a better drug. In addition, considering the safety profile, these compounds are promising as preventive and/or therapeutic agents against oxidative damage.

DNA fastening and ripping actions of novel Knoevenagel condensed dicarboxylic acid complexes in antitumor journey.

Few novel Cu(II) and Zn(II) oxali-platin type complexes of stoichiometry [ML(ox)] where, L is a Knoevenagel ligand and ox is oxalic acid, have been explored. They are well characterized by spectroanalytical methods. The binding and cleavage propensity of these complexes on DNA and their cytotoxic effect in tumor cells have been investigated. They bind to DNA preferentially by intercalation and cleave the strands under mild reaction conditions even in the absence of external cofactors. However, in H2O2 medium they exhibit better efficacy in the nuclease reaction process by initiating DNA cleavage in an oxidative pattern. Complex 1 shows higher in vitro cytotoxic property against HeLa/EAC cells comparing to other complexes and the standards (cisplatin/5-FU). Moreover, the in vivo antitumor efficacy of copper complexes against EAC tumor model reveals that they are non-toxic to normal cells (lymphocytes). Among the copper complexes, complex 1 reveals excellent antitumor activity.

Lasing the DNA fragments through ß-diketimine framed Knoevenagel condensed Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes--an in vitro and in vivo approach.

The syntheses, structures and spectroscopic properties of Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes having Knoevenagel condensate ß-diketimine Schiff base ligands have been investigated in this paper. Characterization of these complexes was carried out using FTIR, NMR, UV-Vis, elemental analysis, mass and EPR techniques. Absorption titration, electrochemical analyses and viscosity measurements have also been carried out to determine the mode of binding. The shift in ΔEp, E1/2 and Ipc values explores the interaction of CT DNA with the above metal complexes. Interaction of ligands and their complexes with DNA revealed an intercalative mode of binding between them. Antimicrobial studies showed an effective antimicrobial activity of the metal ions after coordination with the ligands. The antioxidant properties of the Schiff base ligands and their complexes were evaluated in a series of in vitro tests by using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and H2O2 free radical scavengers. In vivo and in vitro antitumor functions of the complexes against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma tumor model have also been investigated. All the results support that ß-diketone derived Knoevenagel condensate Schiff base complexes may act as novel antitumor drugs and suggest that their potent cell life inhibition may contribute to their anti-cancer efficacy.