The Superior Hypophyseal Arteries: Anatomical Study with an Endoscopic Endonasal Perspective.

BACKGROUND: The use of high-definition endoscopes in extended transsphenoidal approaches to the suprasellar area has significantly improved visualization of its vascularization. OBJECTIVE: To systematically examine the superior hypophyseal arteries (SHAs) anatomy from an endonasal endoscopic perspective. METHODS: The endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal trans-tuberculum approach was performed in 19 adult, fresh and latex injected specimens. Dissections recordings were reviewed to analyze SHAs type, number, and branches, as well as internal carotid arteries (ICA) branches that vascularized optic nerves and chiasm. RESULTS: Identification of SHAs was possible in all specimens (37/38 sides). The number of SHAs varied from 1 to 3 per side (mean: 1.7). The anterior superior hypophyseal artery was visible in almost all cases (35/37 sides) and originated at the level of the carotid cave in 18/35 specimens; number of branches ranged from 1 to 6 (mean: 3.5), directed to the optic nerve (86%), chiasm (57%), infundibulum (86%), and/or parallel to the pituitary stalk (74%). The 4 main branches and patterns, originally described by McConnell in 1953, were confirmed. The posterior superior hypophyseal artery was evident in 28/37 sides with number of branches ranging from 0 to 4 (mean: 2.1), directed to the optic chiasm (50%), optic tract (32%), infundibulum (79%), and/or pituitary stalk (36%). The surgical implications of this study, together with anatomical and clinical videos, are also briefly discussed. CONCLUSION: SHAs constitute a complex of anterior and posterior branches that stem from the medial ICA with different patterns, vascularizing the optic apparatus and pituitary stalk.

The McConnell's Capsular Arteries and Their Relevance in Endoscopic Endonasal Approach to the Sellar Region.

BACKGROUND: The McConnell's capsular arteries (MCCA) were first described in 1953. They consist of medial branches of the cavernous internal carotid artery (ICA) and are divided in anterior and inferior capsular arteries. OBJECTIVE: To highlight the anatomy of the MCCA and its importance in the surgical treatment of tuberculum sellae and planum sphenoidale tumors through an endoscopic endonasal approach. METHODS: Ten cadaveric specimens fixed in formalin and perfused with colored silicone were dissected. Standard endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal approach to the sellar region was performed. The MCCA were identified and still images were captured for further analysis. We report 1 case to illustrate the importance of the MCCA. RESULTS: The anterior capsular artery, which originates from the anteromedial aspect of the anterior loop of the cavernous ICA and reaches the suprasellar space, was present in 70% of the specimens with no difference between the right and left sides. The anterior capsular artery plays an important role in the vascularization of tuberculum sellae meningiomas. The inferior capsular artery originates from the inferomedial aspect of the cavernous ICA, at its horizontal portion, and reaches the floor and anterior wall of the sella where it anastomoses to branches of the inferior hypophyseal artery. CONCLUSION: The MCCA are key structures when performing an endoscopic endonasal approach for tumors of the sellar and suprasellar regions.

A Side Door to Meckel's Cave: Anatomic Feasibility Study for the Lateral Transorbital Approach.

BACKGROUND: In the last decade, endoscopic skull base surgery has significantly developed and generated a plethora of techniques and approaches for access to the cranial ventral floor. However, the exploration for the least-aggressive, maximally efficient approach continues. OBJECTIVE: To describe in detail an anatomical study, along with the technical nuances of a novel endoscopic approach to Meckel's Cave (MC) using a lateral transorbital (LTO) route. METHODS: Eighteen orbits of injected cadaveric specimens were operated on, using an endoscopic LTO approach to MC, middle cranial fossa, and paramedian skull base preserving the orbital rim. Surgical navigation and an after-the-fact infratemporal craniectomy were utilized to identify the limits of the approach. RESULTS: Following a transorbital approach opening a trapezoid window at the superolateral aspect (average 166.7 mm 2 ), a middle fossa "peeling" and full visualization of MC was accomplished with no difficulties in all specimens. The entire approach was performed extradurally without the need to expose the temporal lobe. CONCLUSION: In a cadaveric model, the endoscopic LTO approach affords a direct route to access MC. Its main advantage is that it is minimally disruptive in nature, less brain retraction is required, and it reaches the middle fossa in an anterolateral perspective. It also requires no manipulation of the temporalis muscle, limited cosmetic incision, and rapid recovery. It seems a viable alternative to traditional approaches for lesions lateral to the cranial nerves at the cavernous sinus and MC, that is, schwannomas. Clinical utilization of this approach will challenge its efficacy and identify limitations.

Morphometric analysis of the medial opticocarotid recess and its anatomical relations relevant to the transsphenoidal endoscopic endonasal approaches.

BACKGROUND: The medial opticocarotid recess (MOCR) is located in the posterior wall of the sphenoid sinus, medial to the junction of the optic canal (OC) and the carotid prominence (CP). There is controversy in the literature in relation to the presence of the MOCR and its constancy, which is relevant when approaching the skull base through an endoscopic route. METHODS: The morphometric relations of the MOCR with the surrounding structures were studied in 18 cadaveric specimens after endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA). RESULTS: The distance between both MOCR was 11.06 ± 1.14 mm; the distance between the MOCR and the lateral opticocarotid (LOCR) recess was 5.56 ± 0.85 mm; the distance between the MOCR and the suprasellar recess was 3.72 ± 0.49 mm; the angle between the MOCR plane and the OC 13.32 ± 2.30°; the angle between the MOCR plane and the CP 13.50 ± 2.68° and; the angle between the OC and the CP 26.81 ± 4.26°. All measurements showed low variability, with low standard deviation and interquartile range. No relations were found between any of the measurements. CONCLUSIONS: The MOCR may be used as a reference point for precise location of structures during EEA. Objective measurements may be especially useful in cases with distorted sphenoid bone anatomy.

Tecnica endoscopica endonasal: tratamento de lesoes malignas paranasais e da base do cranio anterior / Endoscopic endonasal technique: treatment of paranasal and anterior skull base malignancies

Inovações técnicas e tecnológicas têm liderado a expansão das indicações de uso das abordagens endoscópicas endonasais para a extirpação de lesões malignas do trato nasossinusal e base do crânio. OBJETIVO: Analisar criticamente a literatura disponível sobre o uso de abordagens endoscópicas endonasais incluindo indicações, limitações, técnicas cirúrgicas, desfecho oncológico e qualidade de vida. MÉTODO: Várias técnicas endoscópicas endonasais foram analisadas segundo a origem e extensão local das lesões malignas nasossinusais e da base do crânio, incluindo a porção anterior da base do crânio, nasofaringe, clívus e fossa infratemporal. A literatura disponível foi também avaliada em função dos desfechos. CONCLUSÃO: As abordagens endoscópicas endonasais são parte integrante do arsenal terapêutico desenvolvido para abordar neoplasias malignas do trato nasossinusais e da base do crânio. Em casos adequadamente selecionados, esta abordagem produz resultados oncológicos semelhantes com menor morbidade do que as abordagens abertas tradicionais. Não obstante, abordagens minimamente invasivas devem ser consideradas como complemento às abordagens abertas estabelecidas, ainda necessárias na maioria dos tumores mais avançados. .

Technical and technological innovations have spearheaded the expansion of the indications for the use of endoscopic endonasal approaches to extirpate malignancies of the sinonasal tract and adjacent skull base. OBJECTIVE: Critical review of the available literature regarding the use of endoscopic endonasal approaches including indications, limitations, surgical techniques, oncologic outcome, and quality of life. METHOD: Various endoscopic endonasal techniques are reviewed according to the origin and local extension of sinonasal and skull base malignancies including anterior cranial base, nasopharynx, clivus, and infratemporal fossa. In addition, the available literature is reviewed to assess outcomes. CONCLUSION: Endoscopic endonasal approaches are an integral part of the armamentarium for the treatment of the sinonasal tract malignancies and skull base. In properly selected cases, it affords similar oncologic outcomes with lower morbidity than traditional open approaches. Nonetheless, these minimal access approaches should be considered a complement to well-established open approaches, which are still necessary in most advanced tumors. .

Endoscopic endonasal technique: treatment of paranasal and anterior skull base malignancies.

UNLABELLED: Technical and technological innovations have spearheaded the expansion of the indications for the use of endoscopic endonasal approaches to extirpate malignancies of the sinonasal tract and adjacent skull base. OBJECTIVE: Critical review of the available literature regarding the use of endoscopic endonasal approaches including indications, limitations, surgical techniques, oncologic outcome, and quality of life. METHOD: Various endoscopic endonasal techniques are reviewed according to the origin and local extension of sinonasal and skull base malignancies including anterior cranial base, nasopharynx, clivus, and infratemporal fossa. In addition, the available literature is reviewed to assess outcomes. CONCLUSION: Endoscopic endonasal approaches are an integral part of the armamentarium for the treatment of the sinonasal tract malignancies and skull base. In properly selected cases, it affords similar oncologic outcomes with lower morbidity than traditional open approaches. Nonetheless, these minimal access approaches should be considered a complement to well-established open approaches, which are still necessary in most advanced tumors.

Cerebral metastasis of cervical uterine cancer: report of three cases.

Cervical uterine cancer (CUC) spreads locally (pelvis and paraortic lymphnodes) or distantly (lungs, liver and bones). Metastasis to central nervous system (CNS) are rare. There are about 80 cases reported in the literature. Outcome is poor and survival varies from 3 to 6 months. Three cases of CNS metastasis from CUC are reported, one infratentorial and two supratentorials in location. In one patient, the initial manifestation was due to the cerebral lesion, a feature reported for the first time. All cases were treated by surgery, radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy. Clinical findings and treatment options of these rare lesions are reviewed.

Cerebral metastasis of cervical uterine cancer: report of three cases

Tumores do cólo uterino se disseminam por contigüidade ou via hematogênica (pulmão, fígado e ossos). Metástases para sistema nervoso central são incomuns. Apenas cerca de 80 casos são citados na literatura. Manifestações clínicas são devidas à hipertensão intracraniana e a déficits focais. A sobrevida varia de 3 a 6 meses. Três casos são relatados sendo um infratentorial e dois supratentoriais. No primeiro, o diagnóstico da metástase antecedeu o da lesão uterina. No segundo, houve 5 anos sem recidiva após a cirurgia, fato este inédito. O tratamento foi cirurgia, radioterapia e/ou quimioterapia. A discussão enfatiza manejo multidisciplinar destas raras lesões.

Magnesium sulfate: role as possible attenuating factor in vasospasm morbidity.

BACKGROUND: Among the many complications of SAH, one of the most important is vasospasm. Several treatment alternatives have been proposed for this condition, with far-from-ideal results being obtained. Magnesium sulfate recently returned to the scene (with still unproven benefit) as an adjuvant in the treatment of vasospasm. METHODS: Seventy-two patients diagnosed with SAH by aneurysm rupture were submitted to microsurgery craniotomy and subdivided in 2 groups. Group 1, formed by 48 patients, received prophylactic hypervolemic and hemodilution therapy in addition to nimodipine. Group 2, composed of 24 patients, received the same treatment of group 1 with the addition of magnesium sulfate in continuous infusion from 120 to 150 mg a day, keeping serum magnesium levels close to double normal values. RESULTS: Age was 49 +/- 12.6 years. Ratio of female to male was 3.16:1. Most patients were admitted in a Hunt-Hess grade 2 (46.4%) and Fisher grade 3 (52.8%). Anterior communicating artery aneurysms were the most common in location (38.8%). Both groups were compared, and there was no statistical difference related to age, sex, and Glasgow, Fisher, or Hunt-Hess admission grades. No statistical difference in vasospasm incidence was found between the two groups. However, in group 1, vasospasm was correlated with a longer hospitalization time (P = .0003), different from group 2, in which patients with vasospasm receiving magnesium sulfate required less hospitalization time. CONCLUSION: Magnesium did not seem to interfere in vasospasm frequency but apparently acted favorably in decreasing morbidity and length of hospital stay.

Ventral extradural spinal meningeal cyst causing cord compression: neurosurgical treatment.

Spinal extradural meningeal cysts are typically formed by a thin fibrotic membranous capsule, macroscopically similar that of an arachnoid membrane, filled by cerebro spinal fluid and related to a nerve root or to the posterior midline. Ventral location is extremely rare and when it occurs they usually cause spinal cord herniation through the ventral dural gap. A 61 year-old man who began with a two years long history of insidious tetraparesis, spasticity and hyperreflexia in lower extremities, and flaccid atrophy of upper limbs, without sensory manifestations, is presented. Investigation through magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated an extensive spinal ventral extradural cystic collection from C6 to T11. The lesion was approached through a laminectomy and a cyst-peritoneal shunt was introduced. The cyst reduced in size significantly and the patient is asymptomatic over a 48 months follow-up. This is the first reported case of a spontaneous ventral extradural spinal meningeal cyst causing cord compression. Cyst-peritoneal shunt was effective in the treatment of the case and it should be considered in cases in which complete resection of the cyst is made more difficult or risky by the need of more aggressive surgical maneuvers.

Raeder's syndrome after embolization of a giant intracavernous carotid artery aneurysm: pathophysiological considerations.

We present the case of a 47 years old woman submitted to an endovascular trapping of a left cavernous internal carotid artery aneurysm, in which the distal balloon was inflated, as usually done, within the cavernous segment of the internal carotid artery, different from the proximal one which was inflated inside the carotid canal due to technical problems. Consequently, a clinical picture of Raeder's paratrigeminal neuralgia took place. This is the first case report in the literature with theses characteristics. A review of the anatomic pathways and further considerations about the possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved are presented.

Raeder's syndrome after embolization of a giant intracavernous carotid artery aneurysm: pathophysiological considerations

Apresentamos o caso de uma mulher de 47 anos submetida a obliteração endovascular de um aneurisma gigante de carótida interna cavernosa à esquerda, no qual o balão distal foi inflado, tal como usual, dentro do segmento cavernoso da artéria carótida interna, diferente do proximal, o qual foi inflado dentro do canal carotídeo devido a problemas técnicos. Conseqüentemente, um quadro clínico de neuralgia paratrigeminal de Raeder se instalou. Este é o primeiro relato na literatura com estas características. Uma revisão das vias anatômicas e maiores considerações a respeito de possíveis mecanismos fisiopatológicos envolvidos são apresentados.

Management of primary spinal chondrosarcoma: report of two cases causing cord compression.

Chondrosarcomas are malignant tumors that rarely grow inside the spinal canal. Prognosis depends on histological features, patient's age and surgical margins free from tumor. Response to radio and chemotherapy is poor. Ideal treatment consists of total "en-block" resection, not always achievable due to limitation of location, compromise of stability and risk of inducing neurological deficits. Two cases of spinal chondrosarcoma causing cord compression are reported, located in the cervical and thoracic spine. Microsurgical technique consisted of initial debulking followed by removal of margins until limits free from tumor were obtained. Total resection was accomplished and neurological function improved in both cases. Follow-up has been seven and one year respectively, with no evidence of recurrence and preserved neurological functions. Association between chondrosarcoma and estrogen-dependent tumor has been confirmed in this report. Although "en-block" resection of a chondrosarcoma should be tried whenever possible, tumor fragmentation should be considered in difficult cases, as in the present report, in which a long period free from recurrence with good quality of life can be obtained.

Management of primary spinal chondrosarcoma: report of two cases causing cord compression

Os condrosarcomas são tumores malignos, raramente localizados no interior do canal espinhal, com prognóstico dependente do grau histológico do tumor, idade do paciente e margens cirúrgicas livres. Esses tumores apresentam pouca resposta à radio e quimioterapia. O tratamento ideal consiste em ressecção tumoral em bloco, condição particularmente difícil em se tratando de tumores causando compressão medular, devido à localização da lesão, comprometimento da estabilidade axial e necessidade da manutenção ou recuperação da integridade da função neurológica do paciente. Relatamos dois casos de condrossarcomas causando compressão medular, um na coluna cervical e outro na torácica, submetidos a cirurgia com esvaziamento tumoral seguido de remoção das margens, atingindo-se ressecção total e melhora das funções neurológicas em ambos os casos. Um paciente se encontra há 7 anos e outro há 1 ano livre de recorrências, ambos com funções neurológicas preservadas. Associação entre condrosarcoma e tumor dependente de estrógeno é confirmada clinicamente pelo presente estudo. Embora uma ressecção em bloco dos condrossarcomas deva ser tentada quando possível, deve-se considerar uma ressecção com fragmentação tumoral em casos específicos, podendo-se atingir, como demonstrado nos presentes casos, períodos livres de recorrência e longo tempo de sobrevida.

Gliosarcoma: report of four cases with immunohistochemical findings

Gliossarcoma (GSa) é uma neoplasia primária rara do sistema nervoso central, caracterizada por padrão histológico bifásico incluindo componentes tanto glial como sarcomatoso. São discutidos os aspectos clínicos, morfológicos e imunohistoquímicos de quatro casos de GSa e seus mecanismos patogêneticos. A relação masculino/feminino foi 3:1. A média de idade foi 39 anos, variando de 19 a 48. Cefaléia foi a manifestação predominante. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos a craniotomia com microcirurgia e ressecção total do tumor. O diagnostico foi suspeitado devido à arquitetura microscópica e foi confirmada por presença de fibras de reticulina através de técnicas de histoquímica. A análise imuno-histoquímica foi positiva para p53 tanto em células gliais como em células sarcomatosas nos quatro casos. EGFR foi localmente positivo em células gliais em apenas um caso. Esses achados apoiam uma origem monoclonal do GSa relacionada com alteração no Tp53, gene supressor de tumor. No entanto, outras vias alternativas na gênese desses tumores não podem ser afastadas.

Gliosarcoma: report of four cases with immunohistochemical findings.

Gliosarcoma (GSa) is a rare primary central nervous system neoplasm (CNS) characterized by biphasic histological pattern with both glial and sarcomatous components. Our objective is to describe the clinical, morphological and immunohistochemical features of four cases of GSa and to discuss its pathogenetic mechanisms. The male:female ratio was 3:1. The mean age was 39 years, ranging from 19 to 48. Headache was the commonest clinical symptom. All patients underwent craniotomy with microsurgery and total resection of the tumor. Diagnosis was suspected due to microscopic architecture and confirmed by detection of reticulin fibers through histochemical techniques. Immunohistochemical analysis was positive for p53 in both glial and sarcomatous cells in all four cases. EGFR was focally positive in glial cells in one case. Our findings support monoclonal origin of GSa involving the TP53 tumor-suppressor gene. However, alternative pathways cannot be ruled out.

[Prognostic factors in the treatment of the intradural extramedullary tumors: a study of 44 cases]. / Fatores prognósticos no tratamento dos tumores intradurais extramedulares: estudo de 44 casos.

Between 1993 and 1999, 44 patients submitted to resection of an expansible intradural extramedullary lesion who filled protocol requirements of appropriate follow up were studied. Patients were constituted by 43.2% female and 56.8% male. The mean age was 32.9 years old. Lesion most common location was at the thoracic spine, with 45.5% of the cases, followed by the lumbar level with 18.2%. Tumor extension varied from 1 to 7 vertebral segments, with an average of 2.5 levels. Schwannoma, with 65,9% of the cases, was the most frequent lesion, followed by meningioma with 20.5%. There were 2 cases of neurofibroma and 1 case of paraganglioma, neuroenteric cyst, metastasis and malignant schwannoma. The evolution was of improvement in 56.8%, stability in 31.8% and of worsening in 11.4%. There was no mortality related to the surgical procedure. All cases of worsening had total resection and they had lesions located in the thoracic segment. Total resection is the ideal modality of surgical treatment. However, at the thoracic level, where the peculiarities of spine irrigation prevail, surgical morbidade may be higher (p=0.014).

Posterior fossa gangliocytoma with facial nerve invasion: case report.

A 5 year-old boy with a cerebellar gangliocytoma with a peripheral right facial paresis and ataxia is presented. His MRI showed a heterogenous, diffuse lesion, isointense on T1 and hyperintense on T2-weigthed sequences, involving the right cerebellar hemisphere with direct extension into the right facial nerve. The present case is the first description of a gangliocytoma with direct facial nerve invasion, as demonstrated for the facial nerve paresis and supported by MRI and surgical inspection.

Fatores prognósticos no tratamento dos tumores intradurais extramedulares: estudo de 44 casos / Prognostic factors in the treatment of the intradural extramedullary tumors: a study of 44 cases

Entre 1993 e 1999 foram estudados 44 pacientes que preencheram requisitos protocolares de seguimento adequado e que foram submetidos a ressecção de processo expansivo extramedular intradural. Os pacientes eram constituídos por 43,2 por cento de mulheres e por 56,8 por cento de homens. A média da idade foi 32,9 anos. A localização da lesão foi mais comum na região torácica, com 45,5 por cento dos casos, seguida da lombar com 18,2 por cento. A extensão tumoral variou de 1 a 7 segmentos vertebrais, com uma média de 2,5 níveis. O schwanoma foi o tipo histológico mais comum com 65,9 por cento, seguido dos meningiomas com 20,5 por cento. Houve 2 casos de neurofibroma e 1 caso de paraganglioma, cisto neuroentorico, metástase e schwanoma maligno. A evolução foi de melhora em 56,8 por cento, estabilidade em 31,8 por cento e de piora em 11,4 por cento. Não houve mortalidade relacionada ao procedimento cirúrgico. Todos os casos de piora tiveram ressecção total e eram localizados no segmento torácico. A ressecção total é a modalidade ideal de tratamento cirúrgico. No entanto, no nível toracico, onde predominam as peculiaridades de irrigação da medula, a morbidade cirúrgica pode ser mais elevada (p=0,014)

Posterior fossa gangliocytoma with facial nerve invasion: case report

A 5 year-old boy with a cerebellar gangliocytoma with a peripheral right facial paresis and ataxia is presented. His MRI showed a heterogenous, diffuse lesion, isointense on T1 and hyperintense on T2-weigthed sequences, involving the right cerebellar hemisphere with direct extension into the right facial nerve. The present case is the first description of a gangliocytoma with direct facial nerve invasion, as demonstrated for the facial nerve paresis and supported by MRI and surgical inspection