Spatial and temporal measurements of temperature and cell viability in response to nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy.

AIM: Nanoparticle-enhanced photothermal therapy is a promising alternative to tumor resection. However, quantitative measurements of cellular response to these treatments are limited. This article introduces a Bimodal Enhanced Analysis of Spatiotemporal Temperature (BEAST) algorithm to rapidly determine the viability of cancer cells in vitro following photothermal therapy alone or in combination with nanoparticles. MATERIALS & METHODS: To illustrate the capability of the BEAST viability algorithm, single wall carbon nanohorns were added to renal cancer (RENCA) cells in vitro and time-dependent spatial temperature maps measured with an infrared camera during laser therapy were correlated with post-treatment cell viability distribution maps obtained by cell-staining fluorescent microscopy. CONCLUSION: The BEAST viability algorithm accurately and rapidly determined the cell viability as a function of time, space and temperature.

Flux-dependent growth kinetics and diameter selectivity in single-wall carbon nanotube arrays.

The nucleation and growth kinetics of single-wall carbon nanotubes in aligned arrays have been measured using fast pulses of acetylene and in situ optical diagnostics in conjunction with low pressure chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Increasing the acetylene partial pressure is shown to decrease nucleation times by three orders of magnitude, permitting aligned nanotube arrays to nucleate and grow to micrometers lengths within single gas pulses at high (up to 7 µm/s) peak growth rates and short ∼0.5 s times. Low-frequency Raman scattering (>10 cm(-1)) and transmission electron microscopy measurements show that increasing the feedstock flux in both continuous- and pulsed-CVD shifts the product distribution to large single-wall carbon nanotube diameters >2.5 nm. Sufficiently high acetylene partial pressures in pulsed-CVD appear to temporarily terminate the growth of the fastest-growing, small-diameter nanotubes by overcoating the more catalytically active, smaller catalyst nanoparticles within the ensemble with non-nanotube carbon in agreement with a growth model. The results indicate that subsets of catalyst nanoparticle ensembles nucleate, grow, and terminate growth within different flux ranges according to their catalytic activity.

Antioxidant deactivation on graphenic nanocarbon surfaces.

This article reports a direct chemical pathway for antioxidant deactivation on the surfaces of carbon nanomaterials. In the absence of cells, carbon nanotubes are shown to deplete the key physiological antioxidant glutathione (GSH) in a reaction involving dissolved dioxygen that yields the oxidized dimer, GSSG, as the primary product. In both chemical and electrochemical experiments, oxygen is only consumed at a significant steady-state rate in the presence of both nanotubes and GSH. GSH deactivation occurs for single- and multi-walled nanotubes, graphene oxide, nanohorns, and carbon black at varying rates that are characteristic of the material. The GSH depletion rates can be partially unified by surface area normalization, are accelerated by nitrogen doping, and suppressed by defect annealing or addition of proteins or surfactants. It is proposed that dioxygen reacts with active sites on graphenic carbon surfaces to produce surface-bound oxygen intermediates that react heterogeneously with glutathione to restore the carbon surface and complete a catalytic cycle. The direct catalytic reaction between nanomaterial surfaces and antioxidants may contribute to oxidative stress pathways in nanotoxicity, and the dependence on surface area and structural defects suggest strategies for safe material design.

Single walled carbon nanohorns as photothermal cancer agents.

BACKGROUND: Nanoparticles have significant potential as selective photo-absorbing agents for laser based cancer treatment. This study investigates the use of single walled carbon nanohorns (SWNHs) as thermal enhancers when excited by near infrared (NIR) light for tumor cell destruction. METHODS: Absorption spectra of SWNHs in deionized water at concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.085, and 0.1 mg/ml were measured using a spectrophotometer for the wavelength range of 200-1,400 nm. Mass attenuation coefficients were calculated using spectrophotometer transmittance data. Cell culture media containing 0, 0.01, 0.085, and 0.333 mg/ml SWNHs was laser irradiated at 1,064 nm wavelength with an irradiance of 40 W/cm² for 0-5 minutes. Temperature elevations of these solutions during laser irradiation were measured with a thermocouple 8 mm away from the incident laser beam. Cell viability of murine kidney cancer cells (RENCA) was measured 24 hours following laser treatment with the previously mentioned laser parameters alone or with SWNHs. Cell viability as a function of radial position was determined qualitatively using trypan blue staining and bright field microscopy for samples exposed to heating durations of 2 and 6 minutes alone or with 0.085 mg/ml SWNHs. A Beckman Coulter Vi-Cell instrument quantified cell viability of samples treated with varying SWNH concentration (0, 0.01, 0.085, and 0.333 mg/ml) and heating durations of 0-6 minutes. RESULTS: Spectrophotometer measurements indicated inclusion of SWNHs increased light absorption and attenuation across all wavelengths. Utilizing SWNHs with laser irradiation increased temperature elevation compared to laser heating alone. Greater absorption and higher temperature elevations were observed with increasing SWNH concentration. No inherent toxicity was observed with SWNH inclusion. A more rapid and substantial viability decline was observed over time in samples exposed to SWNHs with laser treatment compared with samples experiencing laser heating or SWNH treatment alone. Samples heated for 6 minutes with 0.085 mg/ml SWNHs demonstrated increasing viability as the radial distance from the incident laser beam increased. CONCLUSIONS: The significant increases in absorption, temperature elevation, and cell death with inclusion of SWNHs in laser therapy demonstrate the potential of their use as agents for enhancing photothermal tumor destruction.

Pulsed growth of vertically aligned nanotube arrays with variable density.

The density of vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays is shown to vary significantly during normal growth by chemical vapor deposition and respond rapidly to changes in feedstock flux. Pulsing the feedstock gas to repeatedly stop and start nanotube growth is shown to induce density variations up to a factor of 1.6 within ca. 1-2 µm long layers, allowing the synthesis of new array architectures with distinct regions of controllable length and density variation. Z-Contrast scanning transmission electron microscopy of corresponding sections of the arrays is used to provide unambiguous measurements of these density variations. Time-resolved optical reflectivity measurements of the height and optical extinction coefficient of the growing arrays are shown to provide a real-time diagnostic of both array density and growth kinetics.

In vitro and in vivo studies of single-walled carbon nanohorns with encapsulated metallofullerenes and exohedrally functionalized quantum dots.

Single-walled carbon nanohorns (SWNHs) are new carbonaceous materials. In this paper, we report the first successful preparation of SWNHs encapsulating trimetallic nitride template endohedral metallofullerenes (TNT-EMFs). The resultant materials were functionalized by a high-speed vibration milling method and conjugated with CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QDs). The successful encapsulation of TNT-EMFs and external functionalization with QDs provide a dual diagnostic platform for in vitro and in vivo biomedical applications of these new carbonaceous materials.

Low temperature growth of boron nitride nanotubes on substrates.

High growth temperatures (>1100 degrees C), low production yield, and impurities have prevented research progress and applications of boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) in the past 10 years. Here, we show that BNNTs can be grown on substrates at 600 degrees C. These BNNTs are constructed of high-order tubular structures and can be used without purification. Tunneling spectroscopy indicates that their band gap ranges from 4.4 to 4.9 eV.