Posterior Leaflet of Mitral Valve-Is it Really Tri-scalloped? -A Morphological and Morphometric Study in North Indian Cadaveric Hearts.

Background: Maintaining normal left ventricular geometry and function depends on the mitral valve's normal integrity. Irreparable damage to the mitral valve calls for its replacement using either a valve made up of biological tissue or metal, pyrolytic carbon, and similar materials. Materials and Methods: The material consists of 50 formalin-fixed adults, seemingly normal cadaveric hearts of either sex which were received from the Department of Anatomy of various institutes in the north region. These hearts were cut open to access the mitral valve in the left ventricle. Results: In this study, the posterior leaflet was semi-oval in shape being 3.72 cm wide at the base. Usually said to be tri-scalloped, interestingly, it was found so only in 56% of the hearts; being bi-scalloped in 20% and single-cusped in 16% of the hearts. Even four scallops and six scallops were observed in three (6%) and one (2%) hearts, respectively. Conclusions: To conclude, notable variation has been seen in the scallops of posterolateral cusps in the present study. The number of scallops varies greatly as single, double, three, four, or tetra-scalloped and most significant six or hexa-scalloped which has never been reported in the previous studies. To understand the rationale behind each unique architectural layout, such noticeable variations are crucial for scientists around the world. Cardiothoracic surgeons could find this information valuable for mitral valve surgery repair.

Analytical Study of Mandible: Prerequisite for Sex Determination.

Background: Human skull consists of various bones. One of them is mandible which is quite resistant, tough and shows systemic differences in form between individuals of different sex. It resists putrefaction also. There are characteristic features in the mandible that help us to differentiate sex in case of unknown victims like in mass disasters or in case fragmentary remains of the skeleton are found. Analysis of mandible with regard to its features is of great assistance in the determination of sex. Materials and Methods: A total of 80 dry mandible bones were collected. Morphological and morphometric parameters were studied to determine their sex. A total of nine parameters, i.e., three non-metric and six metric parameters were observed for each mandible. Data was collected for each parameter. Results: Among 80 dry mandible bones, 55 were males and 25 were females. 81.2% males bones had a square chin whereas, 80% females had a rounded chin. Gonial flare was everted in 89% males and inverted in 68% females. Conclusion: Mandible exhibits significant sexual differences. Various morphological and morphometric parameters are essential for sex determination in case of mandible bone.

Mandibular Teeth as Predictors in Forensic Age Estimation: A Cone-Beam Computed Tomography-Based Pulp Volume Regression Study.

Background: Age estimation is integral to science of forensic odontology and plays an important role in human identification. Pulp volume estimation using cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) to derive age can be very useful as it is noninvasive and can be applied on individuals of all ages. Aims and Objectives: The study aimed to estimate the chronological age-based pulp and tooth volume (PTV) ratios in adults from Uttar Pradesh, India, using CBCT and voxel counting dental software. Materials and Methods: Thirty-six CBCT scans were allocated into three Groups, I, II, and III (12 in each group) randomly to study the pulp volume of lateral incisor, canine, and first premolar, respectively. PTV was calculated by image segmentation method using Xelis Dental software. A correlation between chronological age with PTV was established using derived regression equations. Statistical Analysis: All the data were subjected to statistical analysis using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 16.0. Results: Estimated age and standard error were determined. Standard errors of estimates were 11.24 years (LI), 7.78 years (C), 9.89 years (PM) group, lowest being for canines. The estimated age was compared with the chronological age. The difference between the chronological age and the estimated age by the derived equation for the present study was statistically nonsignificant (P = 1.00). Conclusions: The results of the study show the feasibility of calculation of PTV ratios on CBCT to estimate the age for the set population with canine as the best predictor of age for the present study population.

Water remediation using titanium and zinc oxide nanomaterials through disinfection and photo catalysis process: A review.

Various pesticides and organic compounds generated as a result of rapid industrialization and pharmaceutical companies pose a major threat to the environment. Novel photocatalysts based on zinc oxide and titanium oxide exhibit great potential towards absorption of these organic pollutants from wastewater. The photocatalysts possess various extraordinary properties like photocatalytic degradation potential, non-toxic and high stability. However, several limitations are also associated with the applications of these photocatalysts like poor affinity, particle agglomeration, high band gap and recovery issues. Hence, optimization is required to enhance their efficiency and at the same time make them cost effective and sustainable. The review covers the mechanism for water treatment, limitations and development of different modification strategies that improve the removal efficiency of titanium and zinc oxide based photocatalysts. Thus, further research in the field of photocatalysts can be encouraged for carrying out water remediation.

Questionable accuracy of CBCT in determining bone density: A comparative CBCT-CT in vitro study.

BACKGROUND: The accuracy of the estimation of radiological bone density with the use of the cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) grayscale is still questionable. Standardization and correlation with the gold standard computed tomography (CT) Hounsfield units (HU) is required prior to clinical application. OBJECTIVES: The objective of the present study was to evaluate the reliability of the grayscale for the estimation of bone density, using samples with intact soft tissue in order to substantiate the clinical use of the scale. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 240 sites in 20 goat heads were scanned to obtain radiological bone mineral density via Hounsfield units in CT and the grayscale in CBCT. The anatomical architecture of soft tissues was preserved for all samples. Two observers obtained the data, which consisted of 3 variables (mean, minimum and maximum) for both scales. The statistical analysis of the data was conducted using Cronbach's alpha, Pearson's correlation coefficients, the independent samples t tests, and regression analysis. RESULTS: Differences in the means of the mean, minimum and maximum values between the 2 scales were statistically highly significant (p = 0.000). The correlation coefficients for the mean, minimum and maximum values of the 2 scales were 0.496, 0.037 and 0.396, respectively. Regression analysis revealed that the R2 values for the mean, minimum and maximum values were 29.79%, 21.05% and 19.45%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The positive but weak correlation between the 2 scales and the low predictive reliability of the grayscale reveals its questionable applicability for the estimation of density in comparison with the standard HU.

Efficacy of Diode Laser Ablation and Low Level Laser Therapy on Healing and Bacterial Load Reduction at Intraoral Biopsy Site.

Statement of the Problem: Healing complications after the conventional surgical biopsy procedure along with bacterial colonization indicates scope for sophisticated techniques. Amalgamation of photo-disinfection along with healing properties of diode laser with practiced biopsy technique can help in dealing with post biopsy complications. Purpose: The present study will analyze the possibility of conjugation of conventional surgical biopsy technique with diode laser regarding its superior properties for achieving better healing and analgesia along with sterilization of the biopsy site. Materials and Method: A randomized control trial was done where punch biopsy procedure was performed for homogenous leukoplakia. Patients were randomly divided into laser group (Test group) and control group. Test group received laser ablation and low level laser therapy (LLLT) on surgical site along with warm saline rinses whereas control group was prescribed with systemic analgesic and antibiotics. Pain on visual analogue scale (VAS), erythema along with the size of defect was evaluated on day 0, 2 and 4. Swabs were collected from the biopsy site and culture was done for evaluation of bacterial load. Results: Highly statistical significant values indicating laser induced analgesia were obtained after analysis for 2nd and 4th day (p= 0.00). Erythema and biopsy defect size evaluation showed significant results for 2nd day (p value 0.023 and 0.004 respectively), which showed absence of erythema and enhancement of healing in test group compared to controls. Statistical significant results were obtained for estimation of bacterial colonization with p value as 0.00, 0.00 for 2nd and 4th day claiming laser supported bacterial disinfection. There was a significant percentage increase on 2nd (p= 0.013) and decrease on 4th post-operative day (p= 0.022). Conclusion: The results encourage the conjugation of conventional incisional punch biopsy with low level lasers to avoid systemic intervention for post biopsy complications.

Association of temporomandibular joint morphology in patients with and without temporomandibular joint dysfunction: A cone-beam computed tomography based study.

BACKGROUND: The etiology of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) is complex and associated with multiple predisposing and initiating factors. Articular eminence morphology and steep eminence inclination have been postulated as the etiological factors, but there has been no clear evidence of association of morphology of the temporomandibular joints (TMJ) complex as a probable predisposing factor in the pathogenesis of TMDs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a cross-sectional, case-control study, and cone-beam computed tomography scans, and the evaluation was performed for 60 joints in 30 patients with symptomatic TMDs and for 40 healthy joints of 20 age-matched patients. One-way ANOVA, post hoc, unpaired t-test, Chi-square, and intra-class correlation coefficient test were used to determine the correlation between the TMJ articular eminence inclination, height, condylar bone changes, condyle, and fossa shapes with symptomatic TMDs. The P < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. RESULTS: There was a statistically significant difference of articular eminence inclination and height with a steeper eminence inclination in the control group (P = 0.044*, and 0.035*). The condylar bone changes were found to be significantly more in the TMJ disorder group (P = 0.001*). There was no significant association of condyle and fossa shapes (P = 0.482 and 0.689) and of articular eminence inclination and height with condylar bone changes (P = 0.695, 0.498, 0.192, and 0.823) and condyle shapes (P = 0.389, 0.521, 0.260, and 0.387). The eminence inclination was not associated with fossa shapes (P = 0.471 and 0.086), but eminence height was associated with fossa shapes in the TMJ disorder group (P = 0.043* and 0.111). CONCLUSION: The results depicted that there was no significant association between TMJ complex anatomy and TMJ disorders in the present study population.

Comparative evaluation of effectiveness of autologous platelet rich plasma and intralesional corticosteroids in the management of erosive oral Lichen planus- a clinical study.

PURPOSE: Oral Lichen planus is a potentially malignant autoimmune disorder, characterized by burning and pain in the affected mucosa which reduces the quality and comfort of patient's life. Various treatment modalities have been documented for OLP but due its malignant potential the alternative therapeutic approaches with least or no side effects are being in demand. One of such, yet unexplored treatment is Platelet rich plasma (PRP). This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of intralesional PRP as compared to the Intralesional corticosteroids in the management of erosive OLP. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study sample consisted of 20 clinically and histopathologically confirmed patients of Erosive OLP among which 10 patients were given intralesional corticosteroids and 10 patients were administered intralesional PRP. All the patients were given weekly injections for 2 months and were followed up till 4 months for assessing the parameters such as pain/burning, erythema and size of the lesions. RESULTS: The patients in both the groups showed a statistically significant reduction in all the assessed parameters of erosive lichen planus from baseline till 4 months of treatment and follow up. However, on comparison of the pain reduction, size of lesion and erythema scores between the two groups, the difference was found to be statistically insignificant. CONCLUSION: The intralesional PRP was found to be of comparative effectiveness with respect to intralesional triamcinolone acetonide in the management of erosive OLP and with an added advantage of having less recurrence and no adverse effects.

Comparative evaluation of serum alpha-1antitrypsin levels in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma and in subjects with tobacco habit without carcinoma.

AIM/OBJECTIVES: To evaluate serum levels of Alpha-1 antitrypsin in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma and compare them with that of healthy subjects with and without tobacco habits. MATERIALS AND METHOD: The sample of 83 subjects was divided into three groups: 30 subjects with oral squamous cell carcinoma formed Group A. The age, sex, habit matched 23 healthy subjects with tobacco habit formed Group B and 30 healthy without history of consumption of tobacco formed Group C. Analysis of the samples was done using Alpha 1 antitrypsin kit and spectrophotometer. RESULTS: There was a 2.33-fold rise in serum levels of Alpha 1 antitrypsin in Group A compared to Group B, 3.71-fold rise in Group A compared to Group C and 1.59-fold rise in Group B compared to Group C (P < 0.001). A definite rise in serum Alpha 1 antitrypsin levels in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma as compared with healthy subjects with and without tobacco habits was observed. CONCLUSION: Alpha1-antitrypsin can be used as an adjunct to various diagnostic procedures implied for the evaluation of oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Ewing's Sarcoma of Mandible: A Case Report with Review.

AIM: To make dentists and pedodontists aware of a possible outcome of a rapidly growing swelling. BACKGROUND: Ewing's sarcoma is a rare aggressive variant of small round cell tumors and is an uncommon malignancy that occurs usually in childhood. It constitutes 10-15% of all primary malignant tumors and represents the second most common malignant bone tumor occurring in children and young adults. CASE DESCRIPTION: We report a case of Ewing's sarcoma in an 11-year-old male child who reported with a rapidly progressing swelling in the left mandibular posterior region. Panoramic view and computed tomography showed characteristic moth eaten and sun-ray appearance. Fine-needle aspiration cytology revealed a small round cell tumor. Since the exact diagnosis is hard to achieve before biopsy, the condition poses a difficult diagnostic dilemma for the clinician. Histopathology was performed for the accurate diagnosis. CONCLUSION: Dentists and pedodontists should develop a high index of suspicion in diagnosing cases with rapidly enlarging intraoral or extraoral swellings as early and correct diagnosis may improve clinical management and survival for patients with this disease. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our case report is an attempt to help the dental community in developing familiarity with the clinical presentation of Ewing's sarcoma. HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: Ahuja US, Puri N, Gupta D, et al. Ewing's Sarcoma of Mandible: A Case Report with Review. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 2019;12(5):470-474.

A Clinical Study on Comparative Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Carbamazepine and Combination of Carbamazepine with Baclofen or Capsaicin in the Management of Trigeminal Neuralgia.

BACKGROUND: Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is characterized by recurrent attacks of lancinating pain in the trigeminal nerve distribution. Various medicinal and surgical procedures have been utilized for the treatment of TN. Over the time, several drugs other than carbamazepine have been used but none of them have shown satisfying results. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study is to evaluate the effectiveness of carbamazepine and combination of carbamazepine with baclofen or capsaicin in the management of TN. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 45 patients diagnosed with TN were randomly divided into three groups. The patients were prescribed carbamazepine in Group 1, carbamazepine and baclofen in Group 2, and carbamazepine and capsaicin in Group 3. All the patients were followed on the 7th day, 15th day, and 1-month period to evaluate the response to the drugs. Data were subjected to statistics. RESULTS: The results are composed of a total of 45 patients (15 in each group). The mean visual analogue scale scores were calculated for each group at day 0, 7th day, 15th day, and 30 days, and it was found that there was statistically significant reduction of pain (P < 0.001) in all the three groups at different intervals. At day 7, comparative percentage reduction of pain in both groups was not statistically significant. At 15-days and 30 days, percentage change in pain reduction in Group 1 was 42.3% and 48.0% respectively and in Group 2 it was found to be 60.3% and 83.4%, respectively. The reduction in pain percentage was found to be statistically significant. Similarly, Group 1 was compared to Group 3, significant reduction of pain was found for carbamazepine-capsaicin combination at 30-day interval but the comparative reduction of pain at 7th day and 15th day was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Carbamazepine in combination with baclofen is more efficient and effective in reducing pain in TN patients, followed by carbamazepine-capsaicin combination compared to carbamazepine alone.

Peptide nucleic acids: Advanced tools for biomedical applications.

Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs) are the DNA/RNA analogues in which sugar-phosphate backbone is replaced by N-2-aminoethylglycine repeating units. PNA contains neutral backbone hence due to the absence of electrostatic repulsion, its hybridization shows remarkable stability towards complementary oligonucleotides. PNAs are highly resistant to cleavage by chemicals and enzymes due to the substrate specific nature of enzymes and therefore not degraded inside the cells. PNAs are emerging as new tools in the market due to their applications in antisense and antigene therapies by inhibiting translation and transcription respectively. Hence, several methods based on PNAs have been developed for designing various anticancer and antigene drugs, detection of mutations or modulation of PCR reactions. The duplex homopurine sequence of DNA may also be recognized by PNA, forming firm PNA/DNA/PNA triplex through strand invasion with a looped-out DNA strand. PNAs have also been found to replace DNA probes in varied investigative purposes. There are several disadvantages regarding cellular uptake of PNA, so modifications in PNA backbone or covalent coupling with cell penetrating peptides is necessary to improve its delivery inside the cells. In this review, hybridization properties along with potential applications of PNA in the field of diagnostics and pharmaceuticals are elaborated.

Lip morphometry in 600 North Indian adults: a data base study for sexual dimorphism.

The study comprised lip morphometry of 600 North Indian adults (300 males and 300 females). The aim of the study was to create base data of various linear and vertical measurements of the upper and lower lips and width of the mouth. This standard may serve as a guideline for sexual dimorphism as well as for restoration or enhancement of esthetic and plastic surgery for the lips in the north Indian population, which will enable the surgeon to offer a better cosmetic result. Prior informed written consent from all the subjects was obtained. The exclusion and inclusion criteria for the subjects were predefined. The analysis shows the sexual dimorphism in most parameters of lips being greater in males. The results were compared with the available data for north white Americans, Malays, Malaysian Indians, Italians, western Indians and Caucasians. In the population under study, the measurements differ in all dimensions with Malays, Italians and Caucasians and show resemblance to the Malaysian Indians. Knowledge of the proportion between the upper and lower lips helps in surgical correction of the region. This study highlights the applied significance of observations of the present study to forensic, namely racial and sex dimorphic, criteria of identification.

Synthesis and characterization of reduced graphene oxide supported gold nanoparticles-poly(pyrrole-co-pyrrolepropylic acid) nanocomposite-based electrochemical biosensor.

A conducting poly(pyrrole-co-pyrrolepropylic acid) copolymer nanocomposite film (AuNP-PPy-PPa) incorporating gold nanoparticles (AuNP) was electrochemically grown using a single step procedure over electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (RGO) flakes deposited on a silane-modified indium-tin-oxide (ITO) glass plate. The RGO support base provided excellent mechanical and chemical stability to the polymer nanocomposite matrix. The porous nanostructure of AuNP-PPy-PPa/RGO provided a huge accessible area to disperse AuNP, and it avoided metallic agglomeration within the polymer matrix. The AuNP-PPy-PPa/RGO was characterized by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), contact angle measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and electrochemical techniques. The pendant carboxyl group of AuNP-PPy-PPa/RGO was covalently bonded with myoglobin protein antibody, Ab-Mb, for the construction of a bioelectrode. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique was used for the characterization of the bioelectrode and as an impedimetric biosensor for the detection of human cardiac biomarker, Ag-cMb. The bioelectrode exhibited a linear impedimetric response to Ag-cMb in the range of 10 ng mL(-1) to 1 µg mL(-1), in phosphate-buffered solution (PBS) (pH 7.4, 0.1 M KCl) with a sensitivity of 92.13 Ω cm(2) per decade.

Microstructural and potential dependence studies of urease-immobilized gold nanoparticles-polypyrrole composite film for urea detection.

Gold nanoparticle-polypyrrole nanocomposite film was electrochemically deposited in a single-step polymerization of pyrrole in the presence of 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA)-capped gold nanoparticles (GNPs) and p-toluenesulfonic acid (pTSA) on the surface of an indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass plate. The carboxyl functional groups surrounding the GNPs within the polymer matrix were utilized for the immobilization of urease enzyme through carbodiimide coupling reaction for the construction of a Urs/GNP(MPA)-PPy/ITO-glass bioelectrode for urea detection in Tris-HCl buffer. The resulting bioelectrode film was characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), contact angle measurement, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and electrochemical techniques. The potentiometric response of the bioelectrode made of polymer nanocomposite films of two different thicknesses prepared at 100 and 250 mC cm(-2) charge densities, respectively, was studied towards the urea concentration in Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.4). The thin polymer nanocomposite film-based bioelectrode prepared at 100 mC cm(-2) charge density exhibited a comparatively good potentiometric response than a thick 250 mC cm(-2) charge density film with a linear range of urea detection from 0.01 to 10 mM with a sensitivity of 29.7 mV per decade.

Enzyme-modified indium tin oxide microelectrode array-based electrochemical uric acid biosensor.

We fabricated a miniaturized electrochemical uric acid biosensor with a 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)-modified indium tin oxide (ITO) microelectrode array (µEA). The ITO-µEA on a glass plate was immobilized with the enzyme uricase, through a cross-linker, bis[sulfosuccinimidyl]suberate (BS3). The enzyme-immobilized electrode (uricase/BS3/APTES/ITO-µEA/glass) was characterized by atomic force microscopy and electrochemical techniques. The cyclic voltammetry and impedance studies show an effective binding of uricase at the µEA surface. The amperometric response of the modified electrode was measured towards uric acid concentration in aqueous solution (pH 7.4), under microfluidic channel made of polydimethylsiloxane. The µEA biosensor shows a linear response over a concentration range of 0.058 to 0.71 mM with a sensitivity of 46.26 µA mM-1 cm-2. A response time of 40 s reaching a 95% steady-state current value was obtained. The biosensor retains about 85% of enzyme activity for about 6 weeks. The biosensor using µEA instead of a large single band of electrode allows the entire core of the channel to be probed though keeping an improved sensitivity with a small volume of sample and reagents.

Tongue abscess: a rare clinical entity.

Swelling of the tongue is a rare clinical entity. It is a potentially life-threatening condition, as it could result in airway compromise. The differential diagnosis of acute tongue swelling includes hemorrhage, infarction, abscess, tumor, and edema. A tongue abscess should be considered in all cases of acute tongue swelling, especially when host defenses are severely impaired. Although the diagnosis of lingual abscess can be reached clinically because of the rarity of the condition, in neglected cases, the diagnosis can be difficult. Despite of the rarity and complexity of this condition, its management strategy is relatively simple. In the present study, we describe a case of a tongue abscess on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue in a 60-year-old woman, and discuss the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of this complex entity.

To evaluate the efficacy of ultrasonography compared to clinical diagnosis, radiography and histopathological findings in the diagnosis of maxillofacial swellings.

AIM: To evaluate the efficacy of Ultrasonography compared to clinical diagnosis, radiography and histopathological findings in the diagnosis of maxillofacial swellings. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was conducted on forty-five patients with maxillofacial swellings. The clinical diagnosis, radiographic diagnosis and ultrasonographic diagnosis were made which was compared to the histopathological diagnosis. The maxillofacial swellings included cystic lesions, benign swellings, malignant swellings, lymphadenopathies and abscesses and space infections. RESULTS: The diagnostic accuracy and contingency coefficient was evaluated considering histopathology as gold standard. The diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound was found to be 92.30% in the diagnosis of cystic lesions, 87.5% in benign tumors, 81.8% in malignant tumors, 100% in lymphadenopathies and 90% in space infections and abscesses. The contingency coefficient of 0.934 was obtained when ultrasonography was compared to the histopathology, which was highly significant. Similar significant results were obtained comparing ultrasonography with clinical diagnosis (0.895) and radiographic diagnosis (0.889). CONCLUSION: Ultrasonography provides accurate imaging of the head and neck region and provides information about the nature of the lesion, its extent, and relationship with the surrounding structures. As the conventional and digital radiography enable the diagnosis of the presence of the disease, but do not give any indication of its nature. So, together with clinical and histopathological examinations, real time ultrasound imaging works out as a valuable adjunct in the diagnosis of orofacial swellings.

Overcoming the heterologous bias: an in vivo functional analysis of multidrug efflux transporter, CgCdr1p in matched pair clinical isolates of Candida glabrata.

We have taken advantage of the natural milieu of matched pair of azole sensitive (AS) and azole resistant (AR) clinical isolates of Candida glabrata for expressing its major ABC multidrug transporter, CgCdr1p for structure and functional analysis. This was accomplished by tagging a green fluorescent protein (GFP) downstream of ORF of CgCDR1 and integrating the resultant fusion protein at its native chromosomal locus in AS and AR backgrounds. The characterization confirmed that in comparison to AS isolate, CgCdr1p-GFP was over-expressed in AR isolates due to its hyperactive native promoter and the GFP tag did not affect its functionality in either construct. We observed that in addition to Rhodamine 6 G (R6G) and Fluconazole (FLC), a recently identified fluorescent substrate of multidrug transporters Nile Red (NR) could also be expelled by CgCdr1p. Competition assays with these substrates revealed the presence of overlapping multiple drug binding sites in CgCdr1p. Point mutations employing site directed mutagenesis confirmed that the role played by unique amino acid residues critical to ATP catalysis and localization of ABC drug transporter proteins are well conserved in C. glabrata as in other yeasts. This study demonstrates a first in vivo novel system where over-expression of GFP tagged MDR transporter protein can be driven by its own hyperactive promoter of AR isolates. Taken together, this in vivo system can be exploited for the structure and functional analysis of CgCdr1p and similar proteins wherein the artefactual concerns encountered in using heterologous systems are totally excluded.