Optimisation of enzyme-assisted extraction of camptothecin from Nothapodytes nimmoniana and its characterisation.

INTRODUCTION: Efficient extraction of camptothecin (CPT), an anticancer agent from the commercial source Nothapodytes nimmoniana (J. Graham) Mabb in India, is of paramount importance. CPT is present in the highest concentration in the stem portion, and the stem can be readily harvested without uprooting the plant. The fluorescence microscopy mapping of the bark matrix for CPT revealed its presence in a free form within both the outer (epidermal and cortical tissues) and inner (xylem and phloem tissues) sections. The bark matrix primarily consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, rendering it woody, rigid, and resistant to efficient solvent penetration for CPT extraction. We proposed a hypothesis that subjecting it to disruption through treatment with hydrolytic enzymes like cellulase and xylanase could enhance solvent diffusion, thereby enabling a swift and effective extraction of CPT. OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at enzyme-assisted extraction, using cellulase and xylanase for hydrolytic disruption of the cells to readily access CPT from the stem of the plant N. nimmoniana (J. Graham) Mabb. METHODOLOGY: The hydrolytic cell disruption of ground powder from the stem bark was studied using cellulase and xylanase enzymes. The enzymatically pretreated stem bark powder was subsequently recovered by filtration, dried, and subjected to extraction with methanol to isolate CPT. This process was optimised through a Box-Behnken design, employing a one-factor-at-a-time approach to assess parameters such as enzyme concentration (2-10% w/w), pH (3-7), incubation time (6-24 h), and solid-to-solvent ratio (1:30-1:70 g/mL). CPT was characterised using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra, and a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed for quantification. RESULTS: The cellulase and xylanase treatment resulted in the highest yields of 0.285% w/w and 0.343% w/w, with efficiencies of 67% and 81%, respectively, achieved in a significantly shorter time compared to the untreated material, which yielded 0.18% with an efficiency of only 42%. Extraction by utilising the predicted optimised process parameters, a nearly two-fold increase in the yield, was observed for xylanase, with incubation and solvent extraction times set at 16 and 2 h, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the spent material indicated perforations attributed to enzymatic action, suggesting that this could be a primary factor contributing to the enhanced extraction. CONCLUSION: Enzyme-mediated hydrolytic cell disruption could be a potential approach for efficient and rapid isolation of CPT from the bark of N. nimmoniana.

Artificial intelligence: Machine learning approach for screening large database and drug discovery.

Recent research in drug discovery dealing with many faces difficulties, including development of new drugs during disease outbreak and drug resistance due to rapidly accumulating mutations. Virtual screening is the most widely used method in computer aided drug discovery. It has a prominent ability in screening drug targets from large molecular databases. Recently, a number of web servers have developed for quickly screening publicly accessible chemical databases. In a nutshell, deep learning algorithms and artificial neural networks have modernised the field. Several drug discovery processes have used machine learning and deep learning algorithms, including peptide synthesis, structure-based virtual screening, ligand-based virtual screening, toxicity prediction, drug monitoring and release, pharmacophore modelling, quantitative structure-activity relationship, drug repositioning, polypharmacology, and physiochemical activity. Although there are presently a wide variety of data-driven AI/ML tools available, the majority of these tools have, up to this point, been developed in the context of non-communicable diseases like cancer, and a number of obstacles have prevented the translation of these tools to the discovery of treatments against infectious diseases. In this review various aspects of AI and ML in virtual screening of large databases were discussed. Here, with an emphasis on antivirals as well as other disease, offers a perspective on the advantages, drawbacks, and hazards of AI/ML techniques in the search for innovative treatments.

Convolutional neural networks in medical image understanding: a survey.

Imaging techniques are used to capture anomalies of the human body. The captured images must be understood for diagnosis, prognosis and treatment planning of the anomalies. Medical image understanding is generally performed by skilled medical professionals. However, the scarce availability of human experts and the fatigue and rough estimate procedures involved with them limit the effectiveness of image understanding performed by skilled medical professionals. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are effective tools for image understanding. They have outperformed human experts in many image understanding tasks. This article aims to provide a comprehensive survey of applications of CNNs in medical image understanding. The underlying objective is to motivate medical image understanding researchers to extensively apply CNNs in their research and diagnosis. A brief introduction to CNNs has been presented. A discussion on CNN and its various award-winning frameworks have been presented. The major medical image understanding tasks, namely image classification, segmentation, localization and detection have been introduced. Applications of CNN in medical image understanding of the ailments of brain, breast, lung and other organs have been surveyed critically and comprehensively. A critical discussion on some of the challenges is also presented.

Experimentally Validated QSAR Model for Surface pK a Prediction of Heterolipids Having Potential as Delivery Materials for Nucleic Acid Therapeutics.

The application of lipid-based drug delivery technologies for bioavailability enhancement of drugs has led to many successful products in the market for clinical use. Recent studies on amine-containing heterolipid-based synthetic vectors for delivery of siRNA have witnessed the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) approval of the first siRNA drug in the year 2018. The studies on various synthetic lipids investigated for delivery of such nucleic acid therapeutics have revealed that the surface pK a of the constructed nanoparticles plays an important role. The nanoparticles showing pK a values within the range of 6-7 have performed very well. The development of high-performing lipid vectors with structural diversity and falling within the desired surface pK a is by no means trivial and requires tedious trial and error efforts; therefore, a practical solution is called for. Herein, an attempt to is made provide a solution by predicting the statistically significant pK a through a predictive quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model. The QSAR model has been constructed using a series of 56 amine-containing heterolipids having measured pK a values as a data set and employing a partial least-squares regression coupled with stepwise (SW-PLSR) forward algorithm technique. The model was tested using statistical parameters such as r 2, q 2, and pred_r 2, and the model equation explains 97.2% (r 2 = 0.972) of the total variance in the training set and it has an internal (q 2) and an external (pred_r 2) predictive ability of ∼83 and ∼63%, respectively. The model was validated by synthesizing a series of designed heterolipids and comparing measured surface pK a values of their nanoparticle assembly using a 2-(p-toluidino)-6-napthalenesulfonic acid (TNS) assay. Predicted and measured surface pK a values of the synthesized heterolipids were in good agreement with a correlation coefficient of 93.3%, demonstrating the effectiveness of this QSAR model. Therefore, we foresee that our developed model would be useful as a tool to cut short tedious trial and error processes in designing new amine-containing heterolipid vectors for delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics, especially siRNA.

Low oxygen microenvironment and cardiovascular remodeling: Role of dual L/N.type Ca2+ channel blocker.

OBJECTIVE: Patients exposed to chronic sustained hypoxia frequently develop cardiovascular disease risk factors to ultimately succumb to adverse cardiovascular events. In this context, the present study intends to assess the role of cilnidipine (Cil), a unique calcium channel blocker that blocks both L-type and N-type calcium channels, on cardiovascular pathophysiology in face of chronic sustained hypoxia exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study involved Wistar strain albino rats. The group-wise allocation of the experimental animals is as follows - Group 1, control (21% O2); Group 2, chronic hypoxia (CH) (10% O2, 90% N); Group 3, Cil + 21% O2; and Group 4, CH (10% O2, 90% N) + Cil (CH + Cil). Cardiovascular hemodynamics, heart rate variability, and endothelial functions (serum nitric oxide [NO], serum endothelial nitric oxide synthase [NOS3], and serum vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]) were assessed. Cardiovascular remodeling was studied by histopathological examination of the ventricular tissues, coronary artery (intramyocardial), and elastic and muscular arteries. Normalized wall index of the coronary artery was also calculated. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The results demonstrated altered cardiovascular hemodynamics, disturbed cardiovascular autonomic balance, increased levels of VEGF and NOS3, and decreased bioavailability of NO on exposure to chronic sustained hypoxia. The histopathological examination further pointed toward cardiovascular remodeling. Treatment with Cil ameliorated the cardiovascular remodeling and endothelial dysfunction induced by CH exposure, which may be due to its blocking actions on L/N-type of calcium channels, indicating the possible therapeutic role of Cil against CH-induced cardiovascular pathophysiology.

Effect of L-Ascorbic Acid on Nickel-Induced Alteration of Cardiovascular Pathophysiology in Wistar Rats.

Nickel, a widely used heavy metal is suspected as a cardiotoxic element. The aim of the present study was to assess the possible protective role of l-ascorbic acid on nickel-induced alterations of cardiovascular pathophysiology in male albino rats. Twenty-four albino rats (b.wt. 170-250 g) were randomized into four groups: control; l-ascorbic acid (50 mg/100 g b.wt., orally); NiSO4 (2.0 mg/100 g b.wt., i.p.); NiSO4 with l-ascorbic acid. Cardiovascular electrophysiology, serum and cardiac tissue malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), ascorbic acid, serum α-tocopherol and serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were evaluated. Histopathology of cardiac and aortic tissues was also assessed. NiSO4-treated rats showed a significant increase in heart rate, LF/HF ratio and blood pressure (SBP, DBP and MAP). A significant increase of serum MDA, NO and VEGF in NiSO4 treatment with a concomitant decrease of serum ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol as compared to their respective controls were also observed. Simultaneous supplementation of l-ascorbic acid with NiSO4 significantly decreased LF/HF ratio, BP and oxidative stress parameters, whereas ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol concentration was found to be increased. Histopathology of cardiac and aortic tissues showed nickel-induced focal myocardial hypertrophy and degeneration in cardiac tissue with focal aneurism in aortic tissues. Supplementation with l-ascorbic showed a protective action in both cardiac and aortic tissues. Results indicated the possible beneficial effect of l-ascorbic acid on nickel-induced alteration of the cardiovascular pathophysiology in experimental rats.

Membranes for dehydration of alcohols via pervaporation.

Alcohols are the essential chemicals used in a variety of pharmaceutical and chemical industries. The extreme purity of alcohols in many of such industrial applications is essential. Though distillation is one of the methods used conventionally to purify alcohols, the method consumes more energy and requires carcinogenic entertainers, making the process environmentally toxic. Alternatively, efforts have been made to focus research efforts on alcohol dehydration by the pervaporation (PV) separation technique using polymeric membranes. The present review is focused on alcohol dehydration using PV separation technique, which is the most efficient and benign method of purifying alcohols that are required in fine chemicals synthesis and developing pharmaceutical formulations. This review will discuss about the latest developments in the area of PV technique used in alcohol dehydration using a variety of novel membranes.

Novel pH-sensitive interpenetrated network polyspheres of polyacrylamide-g-locust bean gum and sodium alginate for intestinal targeting of ketoprofen: In vitro and in vivo evaluation.

In this report, novel pH-sensitive interpenetrated network (IPN) polyspheres were developed utilizing polyacrylamide-g-locust bean gum (PAAm-g-LBG) in combination with sodium alginate (SA) to achieve intestinal targeted delivery of ketoprofen. PAAm-g-LBG was synthesized under microwave irradiation wherein ceric ammonium nitrate was used as reaction initiator and then conversion of PAAm-g-LBG as pH-sensitive copolymer was carried out by alkaline hydrolysis. The PAAm-g-LBG copolymer was characterized through 1H-NMR, FTIR and elemental analysis. The IPN polyspheres exhibited pH-depended swelling or de-swelling with the alteration of surrounding pH. The in-vitro release of drug from IPN polyspheres was found to be higher (≈ 90%) in phosphate buffer of pH 7.4 in comparison with that in pH 1.2 buffer (10.6%). The in-vivo pharmacokinetic, anti-inflammatory screening and stomach histopathology studies performed on Wistar rats revealed pH sensitivity of IPN polyspheres where ketoprofen was successfully targeted to small intestine resulting in reduced side effects of ketoprofen like ulcer formation, erosion of gastric mucosa and hemorrhages.

Reactive mechanism and the applications of bioactive prebiotics for human health: Review.

Prebiotics plays an important role in improving the growth of gut bacteria and it majorly found in various natural food sources such as fruits and vegetables. Nowadays, the prebiotic sources are added as a supplement in various food products such as dairy products, beverages, health drinks, infant formulae, and meat products. The presence of prebiotics provides various health benefits such as improveing calcium and magnesium absorption, increases bone density, reduces cancer risk, decreases cardiovascular diseases and also improves the immune system.

Novel biocompatible poly(acrylamide)-grafted-dextran hydrogels: Synthesis, characterization and biomedical applications.

An electro-responsive PAAm-g-Dxt copolymer was synthesized and characterized by 1HNMR & FTIR spectroscopy, neutralization equivalent, elemental and thermogravimetric analysis to ascertain the grafting reaction. Further, we developed an electro-responsive transdermal drug delivery system (ETDS) utilizing PAAm-g-Dxt copolymer for rivastigmine tartarate delivery through skin. The ETDS were developed using drug-loaded PAAm-g-Dxt hydrogel as the reservoir, and cross-linked dextran-poly(vinyl alcohol) blend films as rate controlling membranes (RCM). In the absence of electrical stimuli, a small amount of drug was permeated from the ETDS, while in the presence of electrical stimuli, the drug permeability was increased. On application of electric stimulus, the flux was increased by 1.6 fold; drug permeability was enhanced when the strength of applied electric current was raised to 8 mA from 2 mA. The drug permeability characteristics studied under "on-off" stimuli suggested that there was faster drug permeation when electrical stimuli was 'on' and it decreased when electrical stimuli was 'off.' The histopathology study confirmed the altered skin structural integrity after application of electrical stimuli. Hence, the PAAm-g-Dxt based ETDS are useful for transdermal drug delivery triggered by an electric stimulus to deliver on-demand release of drug into systemic circulation.

Integration of biological pre-treatment methods for increased energy recovery from paper and pulp biosludge.

The paper and pulp industry (PPI) produces high quantities of solid and liquid discharge and is regarded as the most polluting industry in the world causing adverse effects to environments and human beings. Hence changes in the way PPI sludge and waste materials are treated is urgently required. Nearly, 10 million tons of waste is generated per year, however PPI waste is enriched with many organic chemicalscontaining a high percentage of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose which can be used as valuable raw materials for the production of bioenergy and value-added chemicals. Pretreatment of complex lignocellulosic materials of PPI waste is difficult because of the cellulose crystallinity and lignin barrier. At present most of this waste is recycled in a conventional treatment approach through biological and chemical processes, incurring high cost and low returns. Henceefficient pretreatment techniques are required by which complete conversion of PPI waste is possible. Therefore, the present chapter provides the scope of integration of pretreatment methods through which bioenergy recovery is possible during the PPI waste treatment. Detailed information is presented on the various pre-treatment techniques (chemical, mechanical, enzymatic and biological) in order to increase the efficiency of PPI waste treatment and energy recovery from PPI waste. Along with acid and alkali based efficient chemical treatment process, physical methods (i.e. shearing, high-pressure homogenization, etc.), biochemical techniques (whole cell-based and enzyme-based) and finally biological techniques (e.g. aerobic and anaerobic treatment) are discussed. During each of the treatment processes, scope of energy recovery and bottlenecks of the processes were elaborated. The review thus provides systemic insight into developing efficient pretreatment processes which could increase carbon recovery and treatment efficiency of PPI waste.

Functionally modified polyacrylamide-graft-gum karaya pH-sensitive spray dried microspheres for colon targeting of an anti-cancer drug.

An effort was made to formulate and evaluate pH-sensitive spray dried microspheres using hydrolyzed polyacrylamide-graft-gum karaya (PAAm-g-GK) for colon specific delivery of an anti-cancer agent, capecitabine. The synthesis of pH-sensitive PAAm-g-GK copolymer was done by free radical polymerization followed by alkaline hydrolysis and characterized satisfactorily. The microspheres were spherical in shape; drug entrapment efficiency was found to be in the range of 77.30% to 88.74%. Pulsatile swelling study indicates that the PAAm-g-GK consists of considerable pH-sensitivity. The in-vitro drug release suggested that the microspheres prepared using native GK were incapable to retard the drug release within 5h in the environment of stomach and small intestine. While, those microspheres prepared using pH-sensitive PAAm-g-GK copolymer having crosslinked with glutaraldehyde (GA), released little amount of drug within 5h, but maximum amount of drug was targeted to colonic region in a controlled manner up to 24h. For example, GK10 Microspheres showed only 19.16% drug release at the end of 5th h, while about 80.14% of drug was targeted to colonic region. Cross-linking with GA reduced the early drug release in the upper part of gastrointestinal tract and guaranteed maximum drug release in the colonic region. A rapid enhancement in drug release was witnessed in rat caecal content medium due to the action of colonic bacteria on PAAm-g-GK copolymer.

Novel spray dried pH-sensitive polyacrylamide-grafted-carboxymethylcellulose sodium copolymer microspheres for colon targeted delivery of an anti-cancer drug.

Unique pH-sensitive spray dried microspheres were formulated employing hydrolyzed polyacrylamide-g-carboxymethylcellulose sodium (PAAm-g-NaCMC) co-polymer for colon targeted delivery of an anticancer drug, capecitabine. Synthesis of PAAm-g-NaCMC was carried out through free radical polymerization, which was supported with an inert atmosphere and then the alkaline hydrolysis was performed and subjected for characterization including FTIR spectroscopic analysis, 1H NMR spectroscopic analysis, elemental analysis, viscosity measurement, neutralization equivalent and thermo-gravimetric investigation. The swelling data suggested that the PAAm-g-NaCMC possesses significant pH-sensitive property. The microspheres were in the range of 1.00 to 7.34 µ and the drug entrapment efficiency ranged between 70.98 and 94.41%. In vitro drug release suggested the failure of microspheres formulated using native NaCMC which failed to impede drug release in stomach and small intestine, while those prepared with pH-sensitive PAAm-g-NaCMC copolymer and cross-linked with glutaraldehyde are suitable for colon targeting because they retarded release of drug in physiologic atmosphere of stomach and small intestine. Only 12.97% of drug was released from CMC10 formulation by the end of 5th h and rest of drug has been targeted to colonic region. A sudden increase in release of drug was observed in rat caecal contents media because of colonic bacterial action on PAAm-g-NaCMC copolymer.

Development and performance evaluation of novel nanoparticles of a grafted copolymer loaded with curcumin.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an inflammatory condition with mucosal ulceration, edema and hemorrhage of gastrointestinal tract. Curcumin has been shown to mitigate colitis in animal models. However, its usefulness is reduced due to poor pharmacokinetic behavior and low oral bioavailability. To address this, novel pH-sensitive hydrolyzed polyacrylamide-grafted-xanthan gum (PAAm-g-XG) nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with curcumin were prepared for colonic delivery. Optimized nanoparticles (CN20) were spherical, with an average size of 425 nm. A negligible amount of curcumin (≈8%) was released from CN20 NPs in pH 1.2 and 4.5 solutions. When the pH was increased to 7.2, curcumin release was comparatively faster than that observed with pH 1.2 and 4.5 collectively. In pH 6.8 solution, excellent release of curcumin was observed. Highest curcumin release was observed when rat caecal contents were incorporated in pH 6.8 solution, indicating microflora-dependent drug release property of NPs. In acetic acid-induced IBD in rats, curcumin NPs reduced myeloperoxidase and nitrite levels, prevented weight loss and attenuated colonic inflammation. Curcumin was better absorbed systemically in nanoparticulate form with increased Cmax (∼3 fold) and AUC (∼2.5 fold) than when delivered as free curcumin. We demonstrate successful development of grafted co-polymeric NPs containing drug suitable for colon targeting.

Prevalence of facial asymmetry in Tirupati population: A posteroanterior cephalometric and photographic study.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE: The human face is the most prominent aspect in human social interactions, and therefore, it seems reasonable opting for orthodontic treatment is to overcome psychosocial difficulties relating to facial and dental appearance and enhance the quality of life in doing so. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Posteroanterior cephalograms and frontal photographs of 100 participants (50 males and 50 females) were analyzed to evaluate skeletal asymmetry by the analysis suggested by Grummons. Soft tissue facial asymmetry was analyzed by composite photographic analysis. The data were statistically analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 16.0 software. Independent t-test was used to find the differences between different measurements. RESULTS: All participants showed mild asymmetry and right-sided laterality. The difference between the right and left sides were statistically insignificant (P > 0.01). The test revealed that only Co distance was statistically significant (P < 0.01), and all the other values are not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Composite photographs of hundred participants revealed that facedness is towards the right, however, this laterality was not statistically significant. Both posteroanterior cephalograms and composite photographs showed right-sided laterality. Gender difference in both skeletal and soft tissue asymmetry is not statistically significant.

Novel pH-sensitive IPNs of polyacrylamide-g-gum ghatti and sodium alginate for gastro-protective drug delivery.

This article reports the development of pH-sensitive interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) microbeads using polyacrylamide-grafted-gum ghatti (PAAm-g-GG) and sodium alginate (SA) for gastro-protective controlled delivery of ketoprofen. We have synthesized PAAm-grafted-GG copolymer under microwave irradiation using cerric ammonium nitrate as reaction initiator; further, the PAAm-g-GG was converted to pH-sensitive copolymer through alkaline hydrolysis. Sophisticated instrumentation techniques were used to characterize PAAm-g-GG. The IPN microbeads of PAAm-g-GG and SA, pre-loaded with ketoprofen were prepared by dual crosslinking using Ca(2+) ions and glutaraldehyde (GA). The IPN microbeads demonstrated excellent pH-sensitive behavior as noted in the pulsatile swelling test and scanning electron microscopy. IPN microbeads also showed larger amount of drug release in buffer solution of pH 7.4 as compared to drug release in solution of pH 1.2. The in vivo pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and stomach histopathology studies conducted on wistar rats confirmed the pH-sensitive controlled release of ketoprofen; IPN microbeads retarded the drug release in stomach resulting in reduced adverse effects of ketoprofen.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of novel interpenetrated polymer network microparticles containing repaglinide.

Interpenetrated polymer network (IPN) microparticles of sterculia gum and sodium alginate loaded with repaglinide were developed by ionic gelation and emulsion crosslinking method. The drug entrapment efficiency was as high as 91%. FTIR and TG analyses confirmed the crosslinking and IPN formation. Microparticles have demonstrated the drug release up to 24h depending upon type of crosslinking agents; the glutaraldehyde treatment of ionically crosslinked microparticles has resulted in decreased drug release rate. The in-vivo anti-diabetic activity performed on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats indicated that the pristine repaglinide has shown maximum percentage reduction of elevated blood glucose within 3h and then the percentage reduction in blood glucose was decreased. In the case of rats treated with KA8 IPN microparticles, percentage reduction of elevated glucose was slow as compared to pristine drug within 3h, but it was gradually increased to 81.27% up to 24h.

Simvastatin loaded composite polyspheres of gellan gum and carrageenan: in vitro and in vivo evaluation.

We investigated the lipid lowering ability of simvastatin loaded gellan gum-carrageenan composite polyspheres, which were prepared by ionotropic gelation/covalent crosslinking method. The surface morphology revealed that the polyspheres have rough and dense surface. The drug entrapment efficiency of the polyspheres prepared by ionic crosslinking was higher than those prepared by dual crosslinking. The in vitro drug release study indicated that the ionically crosslinked polyspheres discharged the drug quickly whereas, dual crosslinked polyspheres extended the drug release for longer period. The hypolipidemic activity performed on Wistar rats indicated that the polyspheres have effectively reduced the elevated total serum cholesterol and triglycerides.

Transdermal delivery of lercanidipine hydrochloride: effect of chemical enhancers and ultrasound.

The effects of permeation enhancers and sonophoresis on the transdermal permeation of lercanidipine hydrochloride (LRDP) across mouse skin were investigated. Parameters including drug solubility, partition coefficient, drug degradation and drug permeation in skin were determined. Tween-20, dimethyl formamide, propylene glycol, poly ethylene glycol (5% v/v) and different concentration of ethanol were used for permeation enhancement. Low frequency ultrasound was also applied in the presence and absence of permeation enhancers to assess its effect on augmenting the permeation of drug. All the permeation enhancers, except propylene glycol, increased the transdermal permeation of LRDP. Sonophoresis significantly increased the cumulative amount of LRDP permeating through the skin in comparison to passive diffusion. A synergistic effect was noted when sonophoresis was applied in presence of permeation enhancers. The results suggest that the formulation of LRDP with an appropriate penetration enhancer may be useful in the development of a therapeutic system to deliver LRDP across the skin for a prolonged period (i.e., 24 h). The application of ultrasound in association with permeation enhancers could further serve as non-oral and non-invasive drug delivery modality for the immediate therapeutic effect.

HIV in Females: A Clinico-epidemiological Study.

BACKGROUND: Human Immunodeficiency Virusinfected women account for almost half the number of cases of HIV worldwide. Despite reduction in HIV prevalence among the population, the percentage of Indian women contracting the disease seems to have increased. The social implications are also different in females. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This prospective observational study was conducted from September 2009 to July 2011 at tertiary care hospitals attached to the Kasturba Medical College Mangalore, on a group of 200 HIV-positive patients. Patients above 18 years of age diagnosed with HIV as per National AIDS Control Organisation guidelines were included in the study. Clinical profile among women and men was compared with respect to clinical presentation, disease detection, CD4 count and response of family and society. RESULTS: Clinical presentation was similar among both men and women. Eighty-one percent men had promiscual sexual exposure, 19% of women had so. Males were identified to be HIV-positive earlier than their spouse (tested later), time lag being 27.6 weeks. After detection of positivity 77% of females felt being less cared for by the in-laws. CD4 count less than 50 was detected in more number of females as compared to men (11% females and 1% males). Death of spouse was seen more often in females (among 35% of women and 11% of men). CONCLUSION: Most of the females were likely to acquire infection from their spouse. Females tend to seek and get medical attention at the late stage of disease as compared to men. HIV in females has different social implications which includes discrimination within the family.