Effectiveness of Fipronil as a Systemic Control Agent Against Xenopsylla cheopis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) in Madagascar.

Fipronil was evaluated as a systemic control agent for the rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis (Rothschild), the main vector of Yersinia pestis (Yersin), the causative agent of plague, in Madagascar. The effectiveness of fipronil as a systemic control agent against X. cheopis was assessed by determining the toxicity values of the "Lethal Dose 50" (LD50). Two techniques were used to evaluate the systemic action of the insecticide on the vector: 1) an artificial feeding device filled with blood-fipronil mixture from which X. cheopis was fed and 2) rodent hosts, Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout) and Rattus rattus (L.), which fed on fipronil-treated bait. As a standardized control method, the susceptibility of X. cheopis to fipronil was evaluated by exposure to impregnated paper within World Health Organization (WHO) insecticide test protocol to compare its effect to the systemic activity of the studied insecticide. Results showed that when administered in a systemic way, fipronil appears to be more effective: the toxicity level was evaluated to be ninefold higher compared with the WHO test. Compared with other methods, which require indiscriminate dusting of rodent burrows and human dwellings, fipronil applied in a systemic way enables the direct targeting of the plague vector. Thus, this method appears to be a superior alternative to fipronil-dusting for the control of the main plague vector in Madagascar. However, subsequent tests in the field are necessary to confirm the suitability of fipronil administration in a systemic way on large scales.

Susceptibility to Yersinia pestis experimental infection in wild Rattus rattus, reservoir of plague in Madagascar.

In Madagascar, the black rat, Rattus rattus, is the main reservoir of plague (Yersinia pestis infection), a disease still responsible for hundreds of cases each year in this country. This study used experimental plague challenge to assess susceptibility in wild-caught rats to better understand how R. rattus can act as a plague reservoir. An important difference in plague resistance between rat populations from the plague focus (central highlands) and those from the plague-free zone (low altitude area) was confirmed to be a widespread phenomenon. In rats from the plague focus, we observed that sex influenced plague susceptibility, with males slightly more resistant than females. Other individual factors investigated (weight and habitat of sampling) did not affect plague resistance. When infected at high bacterial dose (more than 105 bacteria injected), rats from the plague focus died mainly within 3-5 days and produced specific antibodies, whereas after low-dose infection (< 5,000 bacteria), delayed mortality was observed and surviving seronegative rats were not uncommon. These results concerning plague resistance level and the course of infection in the black rat would contribute to a better understanding of plague circulation in Madagascar.

CCR5 polymorphism and plague resistance in natural populations of the black rat in Madagascar.

Madagascar remains one of the world's largest plague foci. The black rat, Rattus rattus, is the main reservoir of plague in rural areas. This species is highly susceptible to plague in plague-free areas (low-altitude regions), whereas rats from the plague focus areas (central highlands) have evolved a disease-resistance polymorphism. We used the candidate gene CCR5 to investigate the genetic basis of plague resistance in R. rattus. We found a unique non-synonymous substitution (H184R) in a functionally important region of the gene. We then compared (i) CCR5 genotypes of dying and surviving plague-challenged rats and (ii) CCR5 allelic frequencies in plague focus and plague-free populations. Our results suggested a higher prevalence of the substitution in resistant animals compared to susceptible individuals, and a tendency for higher frequencies in plague focus areas compared to plague-free areas. Therefore, the CCR5 polymorphism may be involved in Malagasy black rat plague resistance. CCR5 and other undetermined plague resistance markers may provide useful biological information about host evolution and disease dynamics.

Isolation and characterization of microsatellites in Rattus rattus.

We isolated and characterized 10 microsatellite loci in the black rat Rattus rattus (Muridae, Rodentia), a widespread invasive species largely known to cause serious problems in agriculture and human health. Polymorphism was studied in two populations, one from Madagascar and one from Senegal. It ranged from three to 12 alleles in Madagascar, and from two to five alleles in Senegal. Together with the loci previously adapted from Rattus norvegicus, this set of markers should allow the conduct of thorough studies on the genetic structure of natural populations of R. rattus.

[Plague control in Madagascar: evaluation of the efficacy of Kartman baitboxes in urban areas]. / Lutte contre ia peste à Madagascar: évaluation de l'efficacité des boîtes de Kartman en milieu urbain.

A method associating an anticoagulant rodenticide and an insecticide called Kartman bait-box aimed both at fighting reservoir and vectors of plague. It was evaluated in two neighbourhoods of Antananarivo (Madagascar) from October 2002 to May 2003. It involved the local community in the control. The study was carried out in Ambodirano-Ampefiloha refered as treated neighbourhood in which the Kartman bait box were laid out with an anticoagulant rodenticide and an insecticide with a rapid action versus a "pilot neighbourhood", Ankorondrano-Andranomahery in which the boxes were provided with non poisoning bait and non insecticidal white powder. The rodenticide used was Baraki (difethialone 25 ppm) and the insecticide was a powder of Propoxur 3%. The evaluation of effectiveness of this method was based on the four following parameters: (1) the number of dead rats collected daily inside and in the vicinity of the houses, (2) the daily number of baits non consumed in the Kartman bait box, (3) the cheopis index of the rats trapped using the BTS trap, and (4) the flea carrier index of the rats captured monthly with BTS trap. The cheopis index and the flea carrier index of the rats were calculated monthly. The number of rats that died in the treated neighbourhood was of 968 versus 3 in the pilot neighbourhood. The other parameters reached a stable level after 3 months. Between days 120 and 180, the mean number of unconsumed baits was 2.79 in the treated neighbourhood versus 0.14 in the pilot neighbourhood, the flea carriage (percentage of parasitized hosts) was 0% versus 61% in the pilot neighbourhood, and the cheopis index was 0.0 versus 5.0 in the pilot neighbourhood. This study demonstrates that Kartman bait-boxes reached the rat borne and the vectors of plague found in urban area. We propose to use this method extensively both during epidemic and inter-epidemic contexts.

Lutte contre la peste à Madagascar : évaluation de l'éfficacité des boîtes de Kartman en milieu urbain

La boîte de Kartman associe, dans un même réceptacle, un rodenticide à action lente et un insecticide à action rapide. Elle offre l'opportunité de lutter contre les réservoirs et contre les vecteurs de la peste. Cette méthode a été évaluée dans deux quartiers de la ville d'Antananarivo en associant la communauté à cette lutte. Le rodenticide utilisé a été le diféthialone 25 ppm (Baraki®) et l'insecticide, un carbamate en poudre à une concentration de 3% (Propoxur ®). Le schéma de l'étude réalisée d'octobre 2002à mai 2003 repose sur une comparaison entre un "quartier traité" et un "quartier témoin".L'analyse a porté sur 4 variables : (1) le nombre quotidien de rats trouvés morts, (2) le nombrequotidien d'appâts non consommés restant dans les boîtes, (3) la prévalence des rats porteurs de puces, et (4) l'index pulicidien des rats. Les variables 3 et 4 ont été obtenues à partir de rats piégés vivants à une fréquence mensuelle. Le nombre de rats morts dans le quartier traité a été de 968 versus 3 dans le quartier témoin. Les autres variables étudiées ont atteint un niveau d'équilibre à partir du 4 ème mois. Ainsi, entre J120 et J180, la moyenne quotidienne du nombre d'appâts non consommés a été de 2,79 dans le quartier traité versus 0,14 dans le quartier témoin, la prévalence des rats porteurs de puces a été de 0% dans le quartier traité (n=2 rats) versus 61% dans le quartier témoin(n=42 rats), et l'index pulicidien de ces rats dans le quartier traité a été 0 versus 5,0 dans le quartier témoin. Cette étude démontre l'efficacité de cette méthode pour atteindre les réservoirs et les vecteurs de la peste urbaine. Sous réserve d'utilisation correcte, la boîte de Kartman a sa place parmi les moyens de lutte contre la peste dans les contextes inter-épidémiques ou épidémiques