Child drowning on farms in Canada and associated demographic and risk factors.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine the occurrence and characteristics of child drowning deaths on farms compared with other child injury deaths on farms. METHODS: This study uses cross-sectional data from the Canadian Agricultural Injury Reporting Program for the years 1990 through 2012. Using χ2 tests and regression, it compares the occurrence of demographics and potential risk factors between drowning deaths and all other injury deaths among children (< 19 years of age) on farms. RESULTS: There were 44 drowning deaths and 306 non-drowning deaths identified. Drowning deaths were at younger age (mean age of 5.4 versus 8.8 years old), non-work-related (25% versus 79%), and less likely to occur during adult supervision (36.4% versus 53.5%). CONCLUSIONS: Drowning disproportionately affects the very young. Improving supervision of young children may prevent some farm drowning deaths, but installing effective barriers to water hazards is likely more effective.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIFS: Examiner la survenue et les caractéristiques des décès d'enfants par noyade sur les fermes comparativement aux autres décès d'enfants attribuables aux blessures sur les fermes. MéTHODE: L'étude fait appel aux données transversales de 1990 à 2012 du programme de Surveillance des blessures dans le secteur agricole au Canada. À l'aide de tests du Χ2 et d'analyses de régression, elle compare l'existence de facteurs démographiques et de facteurs de risque potentiels entre les décès par noyade et les autres décès attribuables aux blessures chez les enfants (< 19 ans) survenus sur les fermes. RéSULTATS: Quarante-quatre décès par noyade et 306 décès autres que par noyade ont été répertoriés. Les décès par noyade ont touché des enfants plus jeunes (âge moyen de 5,4 ans contre 8,8 ans), n'étaient pas liés au travail (25 % contre 79 %) et étaient moins susceptibles de se produire sous la surveillance d'un adulte (36,4 % contre 53,5 %). CONCLUSIONS: Les noyades touchent démesurément les très jeunes enfants. Une meilleure surveillance des jeunes enfants pourrait prévenir certains décès par noyade sur les fermes, mais l'installation de barrières contre les risques aquatiques est probablement plus efficace.

Psychotropic medication use before and after suicidal presentations to the emergency department: A longitudinal analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The rates of annual emergency department (ED) visits in the United States for suicidal behaviour has nearly doubled over the last 10-15 years, with a decreased rate of hospitalizations, indicating the importance of intervention in the ED presentation. This paper describes the patterns of psychotropic use immediately before and after emergency department presentation to enhance understanding of interventions for increasing safety in these individuals. METHODS: 5070 adults seen in psychiatric consultation in two tertiary EDs with linkage to population-based administrative data to describe psychotropic prescriptions immediately before and after ED presentation. RESULTS: 55.9% of suicide attempts were by overdose, with 13.4% of suicide attempts occurring in the 18-21 age group. While no causal relationship can be inferred, half of those who presented to the ED with suicidal ideation or behaviour or non-suicidal self-injury were prescribed an antidepressant prior to ED presentation, with a spike in new prescriptions in the month immediately prior. 20% of those who presented to the ED with thoughts or behaviour received a new or different prescription for an antidepressant in the 1-month post-presentation. Prescribing of tricyclic antidepressants and opioids were decreased following ED presentation, however 21% of people still received opioids after a suicide attempt. Rates of antipsychotic prescriptions were increased. CONCLUSION: Patients are seeking help in the one-month prior to emergency presentation. Clinicians must consider the risk in this period of heightened clinical distress, especially among those under age 21. It is important to consider the changes that can be made in the ED to impact safety.

Agriculture-related Injuries: Discussion in Canadian Media.

Objectives: This study examined news media reporting on farm injuries in Canada for the occurrence of prevention messages and factors related to whether an event was reported in more than one article. Methods: This study used a media database maintained by the Canadian Agricultural Safety Association (CASA), which stores publicly available news media reports of agricultural injuries and fatalities in Canada. Media reports were obtained for the years 2010 through 2017. Reports were coded as whether they reported a fatal or non-fatal injury, age and gender of those affected, urban or rural media, as well as whether they involved machinery, or were in French. Logistic regression was used to determine which variables predicted an event being reported more than once, and whether a report included a prevention message. Results: The database identified 856 relevant articles. Only 6.3% of the articles included a prevention message, and 34.7% were duplicate articles. Fatal injuries were more likely to be reported in multiple articles (odds ratio: 2.44). There was also significant variation in the occurrence of multiple reports across the years of the study. Prevention messages were more likely to occur when at least one child or female victim was involved in an event. However, only year of publication remained significantly associated with the occurrence of a prevention message in multivariable regression (odds ratio: 0.85). Conclusion: Prevention messages are rare in media reporting of farm injuries and are decreasing over time. Improved reporting is needed to aid in farm injury prevention.

Suicide and all-cause mortality in a high-risk cohort: A latent class approach.

OBJECTIVE: To use latent class analysis to group patients consulted to an emergency psychiatry consultation service and assess occurrence of suicide attempts and all-cause mortality across groups. METHOD: Latent class analysis was used to classify individuals assessed by psychiatry in the emergency department of the two teaching hospitals in Winnipeg, Canada. A second latent class analysis was done on individuals presenting with a suicide attempt. Indicators variables included a variety of clinically assessed factors, such as presentation suicidality and occurrence of anxiety/depression/psychosis, and prior medical treatment. Two post-treatment indicators were used; suicide attempt hospitalizations and all-cause mortality within 12 months of assessment. RESULTS: Latent class analysis identified 8 classes for all presentations (n = 5292) and 3 classes for the attempter subgroup (n = 730). Although there is considerable overlap in indicators among the classes certain indicators differentiated between the groups: suicide attempt presentation, prior psychiatric treatment, psychotropic medication polypharmacy, childhood abuse, and addictions. Although the presence of deaths and future attempts varied between the identified groups, there were no groups with a >10% proportion of individuals with either of these outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Potential exists for latent class-based assessments, but additional samples with better indicators are needed.

The Association Between Fitness Test Scores and Musculoskeletal Injury in Police Officers.

A police officer's career is hazardous and physically demanding. In order to perform occupational tasks effectively and without injury, officers require adequate physical abilities. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between scores on several fitness tests and musculoskeletal injury in a group of municipal police officers. This retrospective study used existing data to examine the relationship between risk of injury and fitness test performance. Injured and uninjured police officers scored significantly differently on several fitness measures. A multivariate regression indicated that a combination of age, sex, number of pull ups completed and maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) best explained injury risk. Additionally, the findings indicated an interaction between sex and VO2max, and so the effect of VO2max on injury risk cannot be understood without accounting for sex.

The Influence of Allowable Refill Gaps on Detecting Long-Term Opioid Therapy: An Analysis of Population-Based Administrative Dispensing Data Among Patients with Knee Arthritis Awaiting Total Knee Arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: It is challenging to detect long-term opioid therapy (LTOT) using administrative data, as refill gaps can disrupt opioid utilization episodes. Previous studies have used various methods to define LTOT and allowable refill gaps with little supporting evidence. OBJECTIVE: To describe the effect of allowable refill gaps on detecting LTOT among a cohort of patients with arthritis awaiting total knee arthroplasty (TKA) using 3 different methods. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of multicenter population-based data between January 1, 2012, and December 31, 2016, identified patients prescribed opioids before TKA in Alberta, Canada. We described 3 methods to detect LTOT based on a (1) fixed number of days between prescriptions; (2) fraction of the preceding prescription length; and (3) combination method that selected whichever refill gap was greatest. We then compared the number of patients classified as long-term opioid users by varying the number of days between prescriptions from 1-90 days (fixed method) or 0.04-3.2 times the duration (fraction method) for each method and refill gap. RESULTS: Of the 14,252 patients included in our cohort, 4,393 patients (31%) had an opioid prescription within 180 days before TKA. Detection of LTOT varied from 4.4% to 14.6% (fixed method), 4.2% to 13.2% (fraction method), and 4.5% to 15.1% (mixed method) as refill gaps varied from minimum to maximum. As refills gaps increased, the dose and duration of opioids in the utilization episode decreased for all 3 methods. CONCLUSIONS: The allowable refill gap between opioid prescriptions can influence the estimated rate of LTOT when using administrative pharmaceutical dispensing data. Definitional parameters should be carefully considered when using administrative data to define consistent opioid use. DISCLOSURES: This work was supported by the Department of Surgery's Clinical Research Grant at the University of Alberta (RES0039945). The authors have no potential conflicts of interest.

Injury-related health services use and mortality among Métis people in Alberta.

OBJECTIVES: To examine injury-related health services use, defined as hospital admissions and emergency department (ED) visits, as well as mortality among Métis people in Alberta, and to compare those results with the entire Alberta population. METHODS: This population-based descriptive epidemiological research used administrative data maintained by the Alberta Ministry of Health (AH), for the year 2013. Hospital morbidity data and Alberta Vital Statistics registry were extracted and included a unique personal number to identify individuals across multiple records. To identify injury and mortality cases among the Métis people in Alberta, administrative databases were linked to the Métis Nation of Alberta (MNA) Identification Registry. Age-standardized rates of injury-related health services usage and mortality were calculated and compared between Métis people and the entire Alberta population. RESULTS: Age-standardized incidence rates (ASIRs) of all causes combined of injury-related visits to the ED and hospital admissions were 35% (p < 0.01) and 26% (p = 0.05) higher among Métis people compared with the overall Alberta population. Among the MNA, ASIRs of health service use were higher in rural areas (p < 0.01) and among men (p < 0.01). The injury-related mortality rate was not significantly higher among the MNA compared with the Alberta population. However, among the MNA, Métis males had a significantly higher injury mortality rate than females (p < 0.02). CONCLUSION: Results from the current study suggest that injuries are a concern among Métis people. Health planners should design and implement strategies directed to reduce the burden of injury and associated complications for Métis people, especially in rural areas and among Métis males.

An evaluation of large group cognitive behaviour therapy with mindfulness (CBTm) classes.

BACKGROUND: Ensuring equitable and timely access to Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is challenging within Canada's service delivery model. The current study aims to determine acceptability and effectiveness of 4-session, large, Cognitive Behaviour Therapy with Mindfulness (CBTm) classes. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of adult outpatients (n = 523) who attended CBTm classes from 2015 to 2016. Classes were administered in a tertiary mental health clinic in Winnipeg, Canada and averaged 24 clients per session. Primary outcomes were (a) acceptability of the classes and retention rates and (b) changes in anxiety and depressive symptoms using Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) and Patient Health Questionnaire 9-item (PHQ-9) scales. RESULTS: Clients found classes useful and > 90% expressed a desire to attend future sessions. The dropout rate was 37.5%. A mixed-effects linear regression demonstrated classes improved anxiety symptoms (GAD-7 score change per class = - 0.52 [95%CI, - 0.74 to - 0.30], P < 0.001) and depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 score change per class = - 0.65 [95%CI, - 0.89 to - 0.40], P < 0.001). Secondary analysis found reduction in scores between baseline and follow-up to be 2.40 and 1.98 for the GAD-7 and PHQ-9, respectively. Effect sizes were small for all analyses. CONCLUSIONS: This study offers preliminary evidence suggesting CBTm classes are an acceptable strategy to facilitate access and to engage and maintain clients' interest in pursuing CBT. Clients attending CBTm classes experienced improvements in anxiety and depressive symptoms. Symptom improvement was not clinically significant. Study limitations, such as a lack of control group, should be addressed in future research.

Correction to: The prevalence of underweight, overweight, obesity and associated risk factors among school-going adolescents in seven African countries.

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Predicting Future Suicide: Clinician Opinion versus a Standardized Assessment Tool.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of clinician prediction of risk to a standardized assessment of presentation status. METHODS: All adult psychiatry emergency department consults in the two main hospitals in Winnipeg, Canada, were assessed using a standardized form (n = 5,376). This form includes two risk scales for a gestalt physician assessment of risk (Suicide Likelihood scale, suicide Attempt Likelihood scale) and the Columbia Classification Algorithm of Suicide Assessment (C-CASA). Regression determined whether assessments predicted future suicide attempts and deaths. The area under the curve (AUC) determined the prediction accuracy of these methods. RESULTS: Although the regression results were significant, the AUCs were either moderate or poor. Clinician assessment was not effective at predicting deaths (AUC = .546, .36-.73), but moderately accurate at predicting future attempts (AUC = .728, .66-.79). C-CASA assessment was moderately accurate at predicting both attempts and deaths (AUC = .666 and .678). CONCLUSIONS: Clinician assessment does not significantly outperform a simple assessment of the occurrence of suicidal thoughts and behaviors during presentation to the emergency department. Behavior-based standardized assessments should be further researched in this field. Assessment of suicidality at presentation using C-CASA or similar assessment should be standard for psychiatric patients assessed in the emergency department.

The relationship between physical fitness and occupational injury in emergency responders: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Emergency responders have jobs with physical demands that put them at risk of musculoskeletal injuries. OBJECTIVES: This paper systematically reviews existing literature examining the relationship between fitness and occupational injury in this group. METHODS: Comprehensive electronic searches were conducted using key words relating to musculoskeletal injury, fitness, and emergency responders. RESULTS: Eleven articles included in the review provided limited evidence for the relationship between physical fitness test scores and injury risk. There appears to be a correlation between better aerobic fitness and decreased risk of injury. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence of the relationship between aspects of physical fitness and occupational injury in emergency responders is extremely limited. More research is required to expand the knowledge in this area and to draw more definitive conclusions.

Predicting suicide with the SAD PERSONS scale.

BACKGROUND: Suicide is a major public health issue, and a priority requirement is accurately identifying high-risk individuals. The SAD PERSONS suicide risk assessment scale is widely implemented in clinical settings despite limited supporting evidence. This article aims to determine the ability of the SAD PERSONS scale (SPS) to predict future suicide in the emergency department. METHODS: Five thousand four hundred sixty-two consecutive adults were seen by psychiatry consultation teams in two tertiary emergency departments with linkage to population-based administrative data to determine suicide deaths within 6 months, 1, and 5 years. RESULTS: Seventy-seven (1.4%) individuals died by suicide during the study period. When predicting suicide at 12 months, medium- and high-risk scores on SPS had a sensitivity of 49% and a specificity of 60%; the positive and negative predictive values were 0.9 and 99%, respectively. Half of the suicides at both 6- and 12-month intervals were classified as low risk by SPS at index visit. The area under the curve at 12 months for the Modified SPS was 0.59 (95% confidence interval [CI] range 0.51-0.67). High-risk scores (compared to low risk) were significantly associated with death by suicide over the 5-year study period using the SPS (hazard ratio 2.49; 95% CI 1.34-4.61) and modified version (hazard ratio 2.29; 95% CI 1.24-2.29). CONCLUSIONS: Although widely used in educational and clinical settings, these findings do not support the use of the SPS and Modified SPS to predict suicide in adults seen by psychiatric services in the emergency department.

A Multimodal Intervention for Children with ADHD Reduces Inequity in Health and Education Outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether a multimodal intervention for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) resulted in better long-term health and education outcomes and reduced inequity across the socioeconomic gradient. METHOD: We analyzed administrative data held in the Manitoba Population Research Data Repository describing recipients of a combined pharmacological/behavioural intervention for ADHD. The study cohort included children aged 5 to 17 years who visited the Manitoba Adolescent Treatment Centre's ADHD intervention service at least 3 times (2007-2012). Controls were matched on age, sex, year of ADHD diagnosis, and income quintile. We compared rates of hospital and emergency department visits, medication use and adherence, contact with child welfare services, and whether children were in their age-appropriate grade. We used concentration curves to estimate differences in outcomes between children from high- and low-income families. RESULTS: Children who received the intervention ( n = 485) had higher rates of medication use (rate ratio [RR], 1.21; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.36) and adherence (RR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.03 to 1.96) and were more likely to be in their age-appropriate grade (RR, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.09 to 1.63) compared with controls ( n = 1884). The intervention was also associated with reduced inequity in these outcomes across income deciles. There was no difference in the rates of hospital or emergency department visits or contacts with child welfare services. CONCLUSIONS: A multimodal ADHD intervention was associated with increased medication use and adherence and higher academic achievement. It was also related to lower inequity across the socioeconomic gradient. These results suggest that multimodal approaches may provide more equitable health and education outcomes for children with ADHD.

Emergency department and inpatient coding for self-harm and suicide attempts: Validation using clinician assessment data.

Administrative data have been used to determine the occurrence of suicide attempts and deliberate self-harm, but research about the accuracy of these sources is limited. This study used a clinical sample (n = 5719) containing psychiatry consultations from the emergency departments and inpatient units of the two major tertiary hospitals in Winnipeg, Canada to validate the accuracy of inpatient hospital diagnosis codes at identifying presentations for self-harm and suicide attempts. The Columbia Classification Algorithm of Suicide Assessment (C-CASA) was used as the gold standard. International Classification of Diseases version 10 Canadian Enhancement codes for intentional self-harm, undetermined intent self-harm, and accidental poisoning were assessed. Measures of validity included Kappa (κ), sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV). Sensitivity of hospitalized attempts was low using intentional intent codes (36.9%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 32.4-41.4%) but improved using unknown intent and accidental poisoning codes (44.8%, 95% CI: 40.2-49.4%). Agreement for suicide attempts did not increase with the addition of unknown intent and accidental poisoning codes (κ = 0.465-0.481), but were better for any self-harm (κ = 0.395-0.478). Hospital diagnosis codes undercount attempts and self-harm admissions. Including more data sources might improve the detection of events.

An early intervention for psychosis and its effect on criminal accusations and suicidal behaviour using a matched-cohort design.

BACKGROUND: Early interventions for psychosis have been shown to reduce psychotic symptoms and hospital use for first-episode patients, but the effect on suicidal and criminal behaviour has not been reliably determined. This study aimed to examine whether an early intervention for psychosis program (EPPIS) reduced criminal behaviour, suicide attempts, and hospital-based service use. METHODS: The study utilized administrative data to match clients of EPPIS to historical controls. Regression was used to determine the effect of treatment by EPPIS on inpatient use, emergency department use, suicide attempts/deaths, and criminal accusations. RESULTS: A sample of 244 patients was matched to 449 controls. EPPIS patients had lower odds of being accused of a crime both during and after treatment. Suicidal behavior was less frequent among patients, both during treatment (p<0.0001) and after (HR=0.39; 95% CI: 0.17 to 0.94). During treatment there were more emergency department visits for the patients (RR=2.54; 95% CI: 1.56 to 4.58), but no difference in inpatient usage compared to controls. Post-treatment, both emergency department and inpatient usage were higher among patients. CONCLUSIONS: EPPIS patients had reduced suicide attempts and criminal accusations. Increased emergency department use could indicate that encouraging treatment during a crisis may increase service use, while reducing suicidal and criminal behaviour.

Population trends in substances used in deliberate self-poisoning leading to intensive care unit admissions from 2000 to 2010.

OBJECTIVE: To examine population trends in serious intentional overdoses leading to admission to intensive care units (ICUs) in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. METHOD: Participants consisted of 1,011 individuals presenting to any of the 11 ICUs in Winnipeg, Canada, with deliberate self-poisonings from January 2000 to December 2010. Eight categories of substances were created: poisons, over-the-counter medications, prescription medications, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), sedatives and antidepressants, anticonvulsants, lithium, and cocaine. Using the population of Winnipeg as the denominator, we conducted generalized linear model regression analyses using the Poisson distribution with log link to determine significance of linear trends in overdoses by substance over time. RESULTS: Women accounted for more presentations than men (57.8%), and the largest percentage of overdoses occurred among individuals in the 35- to 54-year age range. A large proportion of admissions were due to multiple overdoses, which accounted for 65.7% of ICU admissions. At the population level, multiple overdoses increased slightly over time (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.02, P < .05), whereas use of poisons (IRR = 0.897, P < .01), over-the-counter medications (IRR = 0.910, P < .01), nonpsychotropic prescription medications (IRR = 0.913, P < .01), anticonvulsants (IRR = 0.880, P < .01), and TCAs (IRR = 0.920, P < .01) decreased over time. Overdoses did not change over time as a function of age or sex. However, severity of overdoses classified by length of stay increased over time (IRR = 1.08, P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: It is important for physicians to exercise vigilance while prescribing medication, including being aware of other medications their patients have access to.

Contagion from peer suicidal behavior in a representative sample of American adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Assortative relating is a proposed explanation for the increased occurrence of suicidal behavior among those exposed to suicidal peers. This explanation proposes that high-risk individuals associate with each other, and shared risk factors explain the effect. METHODS: Data were obtained from the ADDhealth longitudinal survey waves I and II (n=4834 school attending adolescents). People who reported peer suicidal behavior in the first wave were identified and classified as the exposure group. Potentially confounding variables were identified, and propensity scores were calculated for the exposure variable using logistic regression. Inverse-probability-of-treatment weighted regression estimated the effect of exposure on the risk for a suicide attempt during the first two waves. RESULTS: Weighted analysis showed that the group exposed to a friend's suicide attempt had a higher occurrence of suicide attempts in both waves. Exposure to peer suicide attempts was associated with increased suicide attempts at baseline (RR=1.93; 95%CI= 1.23-3.04) and 1-year follow-up (RR=1.70; 95%CI= 1.12-2.60). LIMITATION: Only two consecutive years of data are provided. Misclassification and recall bias are possible due to the use of self-report. The outcome may be misclassified due to respondent misunderstanding of what constitutes a suicide attempts, versus non-suicidal self-injury. Non-response and trimming reduced the sample size significantly. CONCLUSIONS: Assortative relating did not account for all the variance and is currently not sufficient to explain the increased risk after exposure to peer suicidal behavior. Clinicians should assess for exposure to suicidal behaviors in their patients.

A Systematic Review of the Effect of Early Interventions for Psychosis on the Usage of Inpatient Services.

OBJECTIVES: To review and synthesize the currently available research on whether early intervention for psychosis programs reduce the use of inpatient services. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted using keywords searches on PubMed, Embase (Ovid), PsycINFO (ProQuest), Scopus, CINAHL (EBSCO), Social Work Abstracts (EBSCO), Social Science Citations Index (Web of Science), Sociological Abstracts (ProQuest), and Child Development & Adolescent Studies (EBSCO). To be included, studies had to be peer-reviewed publications in English, examining early intervention programs using a variant of assertive community treatment, with a control/comparison group, and reporting inpatient service use outcomes. The primary outcome extracted number hospitalized and total N. Secondary outcome extracted means and standard deviations. Data were pooled using random effects models. Primary outcome was the occurrence of any hospitalization during treatment. A secondary outcome was the average bed-days used during treatment period. RESULTS: Fifteen projects were identified and included in the study. Results of meta-analysis supported the occurrence of a positive effect for intervention for both outcome measures (any hospitalization OR: 0.33; 95% CI 0.18-0.63, bed-days usage SMD: -0.38, 95% CI -0.53 to -0.24). There was significant heterogeneity of effect across the studies. This heterogeneity is due to a handful of studies with unusually positive responses. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that early intervention programs are superior to standard of care, with respect to reducing inpatient service usage. Wider use of these programs may prevent the occurrence of admission for patients experiencing the onset of psychotic symptoms.

Recent self-harm and psychological measures in the emergency department.

The assessment of self-harm risk is a common, difficult, and perplexing task for many physicians, especially those working in emergency departments (ED). Attempts have been made to determine objective methods for assessing patients with suicidal ideation or self-harm though there is still a lack of knowledge about objective assessments of these patients. A study was conducted where 181 suicidal patients were enrolled in two EDs within the city of Edmonton, Canada. Initial interviews were conducted in the ED which collected basic demographics and medical history as well as psychometric measures including the Beck Hopelessness Scale, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Brief Symptom Inventory, Drug Abuse Screening Test 10, and CAGE questionnaire. The results of these measures were compared between those who presented to the ED with self-harm and those who presented only with ideation. Those with recent self-harm scored lower on many of the scales and subscales of distress and impulsivity measured compared to those with no recent self-harm. Possible explanations for this difference include differences in psychological traits between the two groups and possible cathartic effects of self-harm. The lower scores obtained by those that present with self-harm may complicate attempts to use psychometric tools to determine future self-harm risk.

The prevalence of underweight, overweight, obesity and associated risk factors among school-going adolescents in seven African countries.

BACKGROUND: The burden caused by the coexistence of obesity and underweight in Low and Middle Income Countries is a challenge to public health. While prevalence of underweight among youth has been well documented in these countries, overweight, obesity and their associated risk factors are not well understood unlike in high income countries. METHODS: Cross-sectional data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) conducted in seven African countries were used for this study. The survey used a clustered design to obtain a representative sample (n = 23496) from randomly selected schools. 53.6% of the sample was male, and participants ranged in age from 11-17 years old. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated using age and sex adjusted self-reported heights and weights. Classification of weight status was based on the 2007 World Health Organization growth charts (BMI-for-age and sex). Multivariable Logistic Regression reporting Odds Ratios was used to assess potential risk factors on BMI, adjusting for age, sex, and country. Statistical analyses were performed with Stata with an alpha of 0.05 and reporting 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Unadjusted rates of being underweight varied from 12.6% (Egypt) to 31.9% (Djibouti), while being overweight ranged from 8.7% (Ghana) to 31.4% (Egypt). Obesity rates ranged from 0.6% (Benin) to 9.3% (Egypt). Females had a higher overweight prevalence for every age group in five of the countries, exceptions being Egypt and Malawi. Overall, being overweight was more prevalent among younger (≤12) adolescents and decreased with age. Males had a higher prevalence of being underweight than females for every country. There was a tendency for the prevalence of being underweight to increase starting in the early teens and decrease between ages 15 and 16. Most of the potential risk factors captured by the GSHS were not significantly associated with weight status. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of both overweight and underweight was relatively high, demonstrating the existence of the double burden of malnutrition among adolescents in developing countries. Several factors were not associated with weight status suggesting the need to explore other potential risk factors for overweight and underweight, including genetic factors and socioeconomic status.