The role of international support programmes in global health security capacity building: A scoping review.

Large scale public health emergencies such as COVID-19 demonstrate the importance of Global Health Security (GHS) and highlight the necessity of resilient public health systems capable of preparing for, detecting, managing, and recovering from such emergencies. Many international programmes support low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to strengthen public health capabilities for compliance with the International Health Regulations (IHR). This narrative review seeks to identify key characteristics and factors necessary for effective and sustainable IHR core capacity development, establishing roles for international support and some principles of good practice. We reflect on the "what" and the "how" of international support approaches, highlighting the importance of equitable partnerships and bi-directional learning, and inviting global introspection and re-framing of what capable and developed public health systems look like.

How prepared is the world? Identifying weaknesses in existing assessment frameworks for global health security through a One Health approach.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed faults in the way we assess preparedness and response capacities for public health emergencies. Existing frameworks are limited in scope, and do not sufficiently consider complex social, economic, political, regulatory, and ecological factors. One Health, through its focus on the links among humans, animals, and ecosystems, is a valuable approach through which existing assessment frameworks can be analysed and new ways forward proposed. Although in the past few years advances have been made in assessment tools such as the International Health Regulations Joint External Evaluation, a rapid and radical increase in ambition is required. To sufficiently account for the range of complex systems in which health emergencies occur, assessments should consider how problems are defined across stakeholders and the wider sociopolitical environments in which structures and institutions operate. Current frameworks do little to consider anthropogenic factors in disease emergence or address the full array of health security hazards across the social-ecological system. A complex and interdependent set of challenges threaten human, animal, and ecosystem health, and we cannot afford to overlook important contextual factors, or the determinants of these shared threats. Health security assessment frameworks should therefore ensure that the process undertaken to prioritise and build capacity adheres to core One Health principles and that interventions and outcomes are assessed in terms of added value, trade-offs, and cobenefits across human, animal, and environmental health systems.

Mental health systems in six Caribbean small island developing states: a comparative situational analysis.

BACKGROUND: Small island developing states (SIDS) have particular mental health system needs due to their remoteness and narrow resource base. We conducted situational analyses to support mental health system strengthening in six SIDS: Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat and Turks and Caicos Islands. METHODS: The situational analyses covered five domains: 1. Socio-economic context and burden of mental disorders, 2. Leadership and governance for mental health 3. Mental health and social care services 4. Strategies for promotion and prevention in mental health and 5. Information systems, evidence and research for mental health. First, a desk-based exercise was conducted, in which data was drawn from the public domain. Second, a field visit was conducted at each site, comprising visits to facilities and consultation meetings with key stakeholders. RESULTS: Our key findings were 1. Despite most of these SIDS being high-income economies, social inequalities within states exist. There was no population-level data on mental health burden. 2. All SIDS have a mental health policy or plan, but implementation is typically limited due to lack of funds or staff shortages. There was minimal evidence of service user involvement in policy or service development. 3. All SIDS have a specialist, multi-disciplinary mental health workforce, however Montserrat and Anguilla rely on visiting psychiatrists. Child and adolescent and dedicated crisis intervention services were found in only two and one SIDS respectively. A recovery-oriented ethos was not identified in any SIDS. 4. Mental illness stigma was prevalent in all SIDS. Promotion and prevention were objectives of mental health strategies for all SIDS, however activities tended to be sporadic. No mental health non-Governmental organisations were identified in three SIDS. 5. Health information systems are generally underdeveloped, with paper-based systems in three SIDS. There has been no rigorous local mental health research. CONCLUSION: Cross-cutting recommendations include: to develop mental health action plans that include clear implementation indicators; to facilitate community surveys to ascertain the prevalence of mental disorders; to explore task-sharing approaches to increase access to primary mental health care; and to develop programmes of mental health promotion and prevention.

Evaluating implementation of International Health Regulations core capacities: using the Electronic States Parties Self-Assessment Annual Reporting Tool (e-SPAR) to monitor progress with Joint External Evaluation indicators.

BACKGROUND: The International Health Regulations (IHR) are a legally binding instrument designed to improve Global Health Security by limiting the cross boarder spread of health risks. All 196 signatories to the IHR (2005) are required to report progress towards IHR core capacity implementation through an annual multi-sectoral self-assessment process known as the State Parties Self-Assessment Annual Reporting (SPAR). This mandatory process sits alongside the voluntary, external, peer-reviewed Joint External Evaluations (JEE) as two core components of the IHR monitoring and evaluation framework. JEEs are intended to occur once every 4-5 years following a voluntary request from the member state. This means that interim monitoring of IHR core capacity compliance, can be challenging and additional data sources are required. The outputs of the SPAR process represent one such source. Although the JEE and SPAR tools are intended to be complimentary, there has been no publicly available mapping of JEE indicators to SPAR indicators in order to inform progress on IHR compliance. RESULTS: This paper mapped JEE indicators to SPAR indicators and found a high level of correlation suggesting the SPAR process offers a method for countries and technical assistance programmes to monitor progress on IHR compliance and identify gaps in between JEE visits. However, coverage was not complete, and several gaps were identified most notably in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and vaccinations. CONCLUSION: Enhancing alignment between JEE and SPAR could offer a more consistent and complete way of assessing compliance with IHR.

Evidence for factors associated with diet and physical activity in African and Caribbean countries.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and describe summarized evidence on factors associated with diet and physical activity in low- and middle-income countries in Africa and the Caribbean by performing a scoping review of reviews. METHODS: We searched the Medline®, LILACS, Scopus, Global Health and Web of Science databases for reviews of factors associated with diet or physical activity published between 1998 and 2019. At least 25% of studies in reviews had to come from African or Caribbean countries. Factors were categorized using Dahlgren and Whitehead's social model of health. There was no quality appraisal. FINDINGS: We identified 25 reviews: 13 on diet, four on physical activity and eight on both. Eighteen articles were quantitative systematic reviews. In 12 reviews, 25-50% of studies were from Africa or the Caribbean. Only three included evidence from the Caribbean. Together, the 25 reviews included primary evidence published between 1926 and 2018. Little of the summarized evidence concerned associations between international health or political factors and diet or associations between any factor and physical activity across all categories of the social model of health. CONCLUSION: The scoping review found a wide range of factors reported to be associated with diet and physical activity in Africa and the Caribbean, but summarized evidence that could help inform policies encouraging behaviours linked to healthy diets and physical activity in these regions were lacking. Further reviews are needed to inform policy where the evidence exists, and to establish whether additional primary research is needed.

Evaluating an institutional health partnership using the ESTHER EFFECt tool: A case study of an evaluation of the institutional health partnership between Nigeria CDC and Public Health England.

Objectives: Bilateral Institutional Health Partnerships (IHPs) are a means of strengthening health systems and are becoming increasing prevalent in global health. Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) and Public Health England (PHE) have engaged in one such IHP as part of Public Health England's International Health Regulations Strengthening project. Presently, there have been limited evaluations of IHPs resulting in limited evidence of their effectiveness in strengthening health systems despite the concept being used across the world. Study design: Qualitative, using a validated tool. Methods: The ESTHER EFFECt tool was used to evaluate the IHP between NCDC and PHE. Senior leadership from both organisations participated in a two-day workshop where their perceptions of various elements of the partnership were evaluated. This was done through an initial quantitative survey followed by a facilitated discussion to further explore any arising issues. Results: This evaluation is the first published evaluation of a bilateral global health partnership undertaken by NCDC and PHE. NCDC scores were consistently higher than PHE scores. Key strengths and weaknesses of the partnership were identified such as having wide ranging institutional engagement, however needing to improve dissemination mechanisms following key learning activity. Conclusions: There is a dearth of evidence measuring the effectiveness of international health partnerships; of the studies that exist, many are lacking in academic rigour. We used the ESTHER EFFECt tool as it is an established method of evaluating the progress of the partnership, with multiple previous peer-reviewed publications. This will hopefully encourage more organisations to publish evaluations of their international health partnerships and build the evidence base.

What arguments and from whom are most influential in shaping public health policy: thematic content analysis of responses to a public consultation on the regulation of television food advertising to children in the UK.

OBJECTIVES: We explore one aspect of the decision making process-public consultation on policy proposals by a national regulatory body-aiming to understand how public health policy development is influenced by different stakeholders. DESIGN: We used thematic content analysis to explore responses to a national consultation on the regulation of television advertising of foods high in fat, salt and sugar aimed at children. SETTING: UK. RESULTS: 139 responses from key stakeholder groups were analysed to determine how they influenced the regulator's initial proposals for advertising restrictions. The regulator's priorities were questioned throughout the consultation process by public health stakeholders. The eventual restrictions implemented were less strict in many ways than those originally proposed. These changes appeared to be influenced most by commercial, rather than public health, stakeholders. CONCLUSIONS: Public health policy making appears to be considered as a balance between commercial and public health interests. Tactics such as the questioning and reframing of scientific evidence may be used. In this example, exploring the development of policy regulating television food advertising to children, commercial considerations appear to have led to a watering down of initial regulatory proposals, with proposed packages not including the measures public health advocates considered to be the most effective. This seems likely to have compromised the ultimate public health effectiveness of the regulations eventually implemented.

Premature mortality from cardiovascular disease and diabetes in the Caribbean and associations with health care expenditure, 2001 – 2011

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To examine the historical trends of premature death due to cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus (CVD-DM) in the Caribbean and to identify any associations between these trends and health care expenditure. Methods. Death data were obtained from the World Health Organization Mortality Database; population data, from the United Nations World Population prospects; and health care expenditure data, from the World Bank. In all, 17 Caribbean countries had mortality data; however, only 11 had both mortality and health care expenditure data available. The analyses explored country-level trends in age-standardized CVD-DM mortality rates using 3-year moving averages from 1995 – 2014 for women and men. Associations between secular mortality rate change and health care expenditure were considered. Results. CVD-DM mortality rates ranged from 10.7 – 247.1 per 100 000, with a mean of 92.3 and standard deviation of 47.6. Of the 17 countries, 12 showed a reduction in premature CVD-DM mortality in both men and women, with others either showing no improvement or increases. Mortality rates for men were 1.46 times higher than for women. On average, there was a 68% increase in health care expenditure, with a 15.4% fall in CVD-DM mortality in women and 4.9% in men. Mixed effects modelling demonstrated a weak association between health care expenditure and declining CVD-DM mortality for both women -0.006 (95%CI = -0.014 – 0.001) and men -0.008 (95%CI = -0.017 – 0.001). Conclusions. Findings suggest that progress has been made to reduce premature CVD-DM related mortality in a number of Caribbean countries. Differences between countries may be partly related to differences in health care system performance, although further research that considers confounders is needed.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Examinar las tendencias históricas de la mortalidad prematura por enfermedades cardiovasculares y diabetes mellitus (ECV-DM) en el Caribe y determinar si hay alguna asociación entre estas tendencias y el gasto en atención de salud. Métodos. Los datos de mortalidad se obtuvieron de la base de datos sobre mortalidad de la Organización Mundial de la Salud; los datos demográficos, de las Perspectivas de la Población Mundial de las Naciones Unidas; y los datos sobre el gasto en atención de salud, del Banco Mundial. En total, 17 países del Caribe tenían datos sobre mortalidad, pero únicamente 11 tenían datos tanto de mortalidad como del gasto en atención de salud. Se analizaron las tendencias en cada país de las tasas de mortalidad por ECV-DM según la edad usando promedios móviles trienales de 1995 al 2014 para mujeres y hombres. Se tuvieron en cuenta las asociaciones entre el cambio en la tasa de mortalidad secular y el gasto en atención de salud. Resultados. Las tasas de mortalidad por ECV-DM comprendieron de 10,7 a 247,1 por 100 000, con una media de 92,3 y una desviación estándar de 47,6. De los 17 países, en 12 se encontró una reducción de la mortalidad prematura por ECV-DM tanto en hombres como en mujeres. En el resto de los países, no se observó ni mejora ni aumento. Las tasas de mortalidad en los hombres fueron 1,46 veces más altas que en las mujeres. Por término medio, se produjo un aumento de 68% del gasto en atención de salud, acompañado de una disminución de 15,4% en la mortalidad por ECV-DM en las mujeres y de 4,9% en los hombres. Con este modelo mixto se demostró una asociación débil entre el gasto en atención de salud y la disminución de la mortalidad por ECVDM tanto en mujeres, 0,006 (IC del 95% IC = -0,014 − 0,001), como en hombres, 0,008 (IC del 95% = -0,017 − 0,001). Conclusiones. Los resultados indican que se han logrado avances en la reducción de la mortalidad prematura relacionada con ECV-DM en varios países del Caribe. Las diferencias entre los países pueden estar en parte relacionadas con las diferencias en el desempeño de los sistemas de atención de salud, aunque es necesario llevar a cabo más investigaciones donde se tengan en cuenta los factores de confusión.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Examinar as tendências históricas da morte prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes mellitus no Caribe e identificar as associações existentes entre as tendências e o gasto com saúde. Métodos. Os dados de mortalidade foram obtidos do Banco de Dados de Mortalidade da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS), os dados populacionais dos prospectos de população mundial das Nações Unidas e os dados de gasto com saúde do Banco Mundial. Ao todo, 17 países do Caribe possuíam dados de mortalidade, porém apenas 11 dispunham de dados de mortalidade e de gasto com saúde. Foram analisadas as tendências em cada país das taxas de mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes padronizadas por idade nos sexos feminino e masculino usando médias móveis de 3 anos de 1995 a 2014. Foram examinadas as associações existentes entre a variação secular da taxa de mortalidade e o gasto com saúde. Resultados. As taxas de mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes variaram de 10,7–247,1 por 100 mil (média de 92,3 e desvio padrão de 47,6). Dos 17 países, 12 tiveram redução da mortalidade prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes tanto no sexo masculino quanto no feminino, sendo que os outros países não demonstraram melhoria ou aumento. As taxas de mortalidade foi 1,46 vez maior no sexo masculino que no feminino. Em média, houve um aumento de 68% no gasto com saúde, com uma queda de 15,4% na mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes no sexo feminino e 4,9% no sexo masculino. A modelagem de efeitos mistos demonstrou uma fraca associação entre gasto com saúde e declínio da mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes tanto no sexo feminino (−0,006; IC 95% −0,014 a 0,001) quanto no masculino (−0,008; IC 95% −0,017 a 0,001). Conclusões. A análise indicou que houve avanços na redução da mortalidade prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes em vários países do Caribe. As variações entre os países podem estar relacionadas em parte a diferenças no desempenho dos sistemas de saúde, mas outros estudos são necessários considerando-se os fatores de confusão.

Premature mortality from cardiovascular disease and diabetes in the Caribbean and associations with health care expenditure, 2001 - 2011.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the historical trends of premature death due to cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus (CVD-DM) in the Caribbean and to identify any associations between these trends and health care expenditure. METHODS: Death data were obtained from the World Health Organization Mortality Database; population data, from the United Nations World Population prospects; and health care expenditure data, from the World Bank. In all, 17 Caribbean countries had mortality data; however, only 11 had both mortality and health care expenditure data available. The analyses explored country-level trends in age-standardized CVD-DM mortality rates using 3-year moving averages from 1995 - 2014 for women and men. Associations between secular mortality rate change and health care expenditure were considered. RESULTS: CVD-DM mortality rates ranged from 10.7 - 247.1 per 100 000, with a mean of 92.3 and standard deviation of 47.6. Of the 17 countries, 12 showed a reduction in premature CVD-DM mortality in both men and women, with others either showing no improvement or increases. Mortality rates for men were 1.46 times higher than for women. On average, there was a 68% increase in health care expenditure, with a 15.4% fall in CVD-DM mortality in women and 4.9% in men. Mixed effects modelling demonstrated a weak association between health care expenditure and declining CVD-DM mortality for both women -0.006 (95%CI = -0.014 - 0.001) and men -0.008 (95%CI = -0.017 - 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that progress has been made to reduce premature CVD-DM related mortality in a number of Caribbean countries. Differences between countries may be partly related to differences in health care system performance, although further research that considers confounders is needed.

Premature mortality from cardiovascular disease and diabetes in the Caribbean and associations with health care expenditure, 2001-2011 / Asociación entre la mortalidad prematura por enfermedades cardiovasculares y diabetes, y el gasto en atención de salud en el Caribe, 2001-2011 / Mortalidade prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes no Caribe e associações com gasto com saúde, 2001-2011

ABSTRACT Objective. To examine the historical trends of premature death due to cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus (CVD-DM) in the Caribbean and to identify any associations between these trends and health care expenditure. Methods. Death data were obtained from the World Health Organization Mortality Database; population data, from the United Nations World Population prospects; and health care expenditure data, from the World Bank. In all, 17 Caribbean countries had mortality data; however, only 11 had both mortality and health care expenditure data available. The analyses explored country-level trends in age-standardized CVD-DM mortality rates using 3-year moving averages from 1995 − 2014 for women and men. Associations between secular mortality rate change and health care expenditure were considered. Results. CVD-DM mortality rates ranged from 10.7 − 247.1 per 100 000, with a mean of 92.3 and standard deviation of 47.6. Of the 17 countries, 12 showed a reduction in premature CVD-DM mortality in both men and women, with others either showing no improvement or increases. Mortality rates for men were 1.46 times higher than for women. On average, there was a 68% increase in health care expenditure, with a 15.4% fall in CVD-DM mortality in women and 4.9% in men. Mixed effects modelling demonstrated a weak association between health care expenditure and declining CVD-DM mortality for both women −0.006 (95%CI = −0.014 − 0.001) and men −0.008 (95%CI = −0.017 − 0.001). Conclusions. Findings suggest that progress has been made to reduce premature CVD-DM related mortality in a number of Caribbean countries. Differences between countries may be partly related to differences in health care system performance, although further research that considers confounders is needed.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Examinar las tendencias históricas de la mortalidad prematura por enfermedades cardiovasculares y diabetes mellitus (ECV-DM) en el Caribe y determinar si hay alguna asociación entre estas tendencias y el gasto en atención de salud. Métodos. Los datos de mortalidad se obtuvieron de la base de datos sobre mortalidad de la Organización Mundial de la Salud; los datos demográficos, de las Perspectivas de la Población Mundial de las Naciones Unidas; y los datos sobre el gasto en atención de salud, del Banco Mundial. En total, 17 países del Caribe tenían datos sobre mortalidad, pero únicamente 11 tenían datos tanto de mortalidad como del gasto en atención de salud. Se analizaron las tendencias en cada país de las tasas de mortalidad por ECV-DM según la edad usando promedios móviles trienales de 1995 al 2014 para mujeres y hombres. Se tuvieron en cuenta las asociaciones entre el cambio en la tasa de mortalidad secular y el gasto en atención de salud. Resultados. Las tasas de mortalidad por ECV-DM comprendieron de 10,7 a 247,1 por 100 000, con una media de 92,3 y una desviación estándar de 47,6. De los 17 países, en 12 se encontró una reducción de la mortalidad prematura por ECV-DM tanto en hombres como en mujeres. En el resto de los países, no se observó ni mejora ni aumento. Las tasas de mortalidad en los hombres fueron 1,46 veces más altas que en las mujeres. Por término medio, se produjo un aumento de 68% del gasto en atención de salud, acompañado de una disminución de 15,4% en la mortalidad por ECV-DM en las mujeres y de 4,9% en los hombres. Con este modelo mixto se demostró una asociación débil entre el gasto en atención de salud y la disminución de la mortalidad por ECV-DM tanto en mujeres, 0,006 (IC del 95% IC = −0,014 − 0,001), como en hombres, 0,008 (IC del 95% = −0,017 − 0,001). Conclusiones. Los resultados indican que se han logrado avances en la reducción de la mortalidad prematura relacionada con ECV-DM en varios países del Caribe. Las diferencias entre los países pueden estar en parte relacionadas con las diferencias en el desempeño de los sistemas de atención de salud, aunque es necesario llevar a cabo más investigaciones donde se tengan en cuenta los factores de confusión.

RESUMO Objetivo. Examinar as tendências históricas da morte prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes mellitus no Caribe e identificar as associações existentes entre as tendências e o gasto com saúde. Métodos. Os dados de mortalidade foram obtidos do Banco de Dados de Mortalidade da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS), os dados populacionais dos prospectos de população mundial das Nações Unidas e os dados de gasto com saúde do Banco Mundial. Ao todo, 17 países do Caribe possuíam dados de mortalidade, porém apenas 11 dispunham de dados de mortalidade e de gasto com saúde. Foram analisadas as tendências em cada país das taxas de mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes padronizadas por idade nos sexos feminino e masculino usando médias móveis de 3 anos de 1995 a 2014. Foram examinadas as associações existentes entre a variação secular da taxa de mortalidade e o gasto com saúde. Resultados. As taxas de mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes variaram de 10,7-247,1 por 100 mil (média de 92,3 e desvio padrão de 47,6). Dos 17 países, 12 tiveram redução da mortalidade prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes tanto no sexo masculino quanto no feminino, sendo que os outros países não demonstraram melhoria ou aumento. As taxas de mortalidade foi 1,46 vez maior no sexo masculino que no feminino. Em média, houve um aumento de 68% no gasto com saúde, com uma queda de 15,4% na mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes no sexo feminino e 4,9% no sexo masculino. A modelagem de efeitos mistos demonstrou uma fraca associação entre gasto com saúde e declínio da mortalidade por doença cardiovascular e diabetes tanto no sexo feminino (−0,006; IC 95% −0,014 a 0,001) quanto no masculino (−0,008; IC 95% −0,017 a 0,001). Conclusões. A análise indicou que houve avanços na redução da mortalidade prematura por doença cardiovascular e diabetes em vários países do Caribe. As variações entre os países podem estar relacionadas em parte a diferenças no desempenho dos sistemas de saúde, mas outros estudos são necessários considerando-se os fatores de confusão.