Fragment-Based Discovery of a Series of Allosteric-Binding Site Modulators of ß-Glucocerebrosidase.

ß-Glucocerebrosidase (GBA/GCase) mutations leading to misfolded protein cause Gaucher's disease and are a major genetic risk factor for Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. The identification of small molecule pharmacological chaperones that can stabilize the misfolded protein and increase delivery of degradation-prone mutant GCase to the lysosome is a strategy under active investigation. Here, we describe the first use of fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) to identify pharmacological chaperones of GCase. The fragment hits were identified by using X-ray crystallography and biophysical techniques. This work led to the discovery of a series of compounds that bind GCase with nM potency and positively modulate GCase activity in cells.

Fragment-Based Discovery of a Novel, Brain Penetrant, Orally Active HDAC2 Inhibitor.

Fragment-based ligand discovery was successfully applied to histone deacetylase HDAC2. In addition to the anticipated hydroxamic acid- and benzamide-based fragment screening hits, a low affinity (∼1 mM) α-amino-amide zinc binding fragment was identified, as well as fragments binding to other regions of the catalytic site. This alternative zinc-binding fragment was further optimized, guided by the structural information from protein-ligand complex X-ray structures, into a sub-µM, brain penetrant, HDAC2 inhibitor (17) capable of modulating histone acetylation levels in vivo.

Structure-Based Design of Potent and Orally Active Isoindolinone Inhibitors of MDM2-p53 Protein-Protein Interaction.

Inhibition of murine double minute 2 (MDM2)-p53 protein-protein interaction with small molecules has been shown to reactivate p53 and inhibit tumor growth. Here, we describe rational, structure-guided, design of novel isoindolinone-based MDM2 inhibitors. MDM2 X-ray crystallography, quantum mechanics ligand-based design, and metabolite identification all contributed toward the discovery of potent in vitro and in vivo inhibitors of the MDM2-p53 interaction with representative compounds inducing cytostasis in an SJSA-1 osteosarcoma xenograft model following once-daily oral administration.

Discriminative SKP2 Interactions with CDK-Cyclin Complexes Support a Cyclin A-Specific Role in p27KIP1 Degradation.

The SCFSKP2 ubiquitin ligase relieves G1 checkpoint control of CDK-cyclin complexes by promoting p27KIP1 degradation. We describe reconstitution of stable complexes containing SKP1-SKP2 and CDK1-cyclin B or CDK2-cyclin A/E, mediated by the CDK regulatory subunit CKS1. We further show that a direct interaction between a SKP2 N-terminal motif and cyclin A can stabilize SKP1-SKP2-CDK2-cyclin A complexes in the absence of CKS1. We identify the SKP2 binding site on cyclin A and demonstrate the site is not present in cyclin B or cyclin E. This site is distinct from but overlapping with features that mediate binding of p27KIP1 and other G1 cyclin regulators to cyclin A. We propose that the capacity of SKP2 to engage with CDK2-cyclin A by more than one structural mechanism provides a way to fine tune the degradation of p27KIP1 and distinguishes cyclin A from other G1 cyclins to ensure orderly cell cycle progression.

Fragment-based drug discovery using cryo-EM.

Recent advances in electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) structure determination have pushed the resolutions obtainable by the method into the range widely considered to be of utility for drug discovery. Here, we review the use of cryo-EM in fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) based on in-house method development. We demonstrate not only that cryo-EM can reveal details of the molecular interactions between fragments and a protein, but also that the current reproducibility, quality, and throughput are compatible with FBDD. We exemplify this using the test system ß-galactosidase (Bgal) and the oncology target pyruvate kinase 2 (PKM2).

Tuning the Binding Affinity and Selectivity of Perfluoroaryl-Stapled Peptides by Cysteine-Editing.

A growing number of approaches to "staple" α-helical peptides into a bioactive conformation using cysteine cross-linking are emerging. Here, the replacement of l-cysteine with "cysteine analogues" in combinations of different stereochemistry, side chain length and beta-carbon substitution, is explored to examine the influence that the thiol-containing residue(s) has on target protein binding affinity in a well-explored model system, p53-MDM2/MDMX, which is constituted by the interaction of the tumour suppressor protein p53 and proteins MDM2 and MDMX, which regulate p53 activity. In some cases, replacement of one or more l-cysteine residues afforded significant changes in the measured binding affinity and target selectivity of the peptide. Computationally constructed homology models indicate that some modifications, such as incorporating two d-cysteine residues, favourably alter the positions of key functional amino acid side chains, which is likely to cause changes in binding affinity, in agreement with measured surface plasmon resonance data.

Benzene Probes in Molecular Dynamics Simulations Reveal Novel Binding Sites for Ligand Design.

Protein flexibility poses a major challenge in binding site identification. Several computational pocket detection methods that utilize small-molecule probes in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been developed to address this issue. Although they have proven hugely successful at reproducing experimental structural data, their ability to predict new binding sites that are yet to be identified and characterized has not been demonstrated. Here, we report the use of benzenes as probe molecules in ligand-mapping MD (LMMD) simulations to predict the existence of two novel binding sites on the surface of the oncoprotein MDM2. One of them was serendipitously confirmed by biophysical assays and X-ray crystallography to be important for the binding of a new family of hydrocarbon stapled peptides that were specifically designed to target the other putative site. These results highlight the predictive power of LMMD and suggest that predictions derived from LMMD simulations can serve as a reliable basis for the identification of novel ligand binding sites in structure-based drug design.

Structure of the archaeal Cascade subunit Csa5: relating the small subunits of CRISPR effector complexes.

The Cascade complex for CRISPR-mediated antiviral immunity uses CRISPR RNA (crRNA) to target invading DNA species from mobile elements such as viruses, leading to their destruction. The core of the Cascade effector complex consists of the Cas5 and Cas7 subunits, which are widely conserved in prokaryotes. Cas7 binds crRNA and forms the helical backbone of Cascade. Many archaea encode a version of the Cascade complex (denoted Type I-A) that includes a Csa5 (or small) subunit, which interacts weakly with the core proteins. Here, we report the crystal structure of the Csa5 protein from Sulfolobus solfataricus. Csa5 comprises a conserved α-helical domain with a small insertion consisting of a weakly conserved ß-strand domain. In the crystal, the Csa5 monomers have multimerized into infinite helical threads. At each interface is a strictly conserved intersubunit salt bridge, deletion of which disrupts multimerization. Structural analysis indicates a shared evolutionary history among the small subunits of the CRISPR effector complexes. The same α-helical domain is found in the C-terminal domain of Cse2 (from Type I-E Cascade), while the N-terminal domain of Cse2 is found in Cmr5 of the CMR (Type III-B) effector complex. As Cmr5 shares no match with Csa5, two possibilities present themselves: selective domain loss from an ancestral Cse2 to create two new subfamilies or domain fusion of two separate families to create a new Cse2 family. A definitive answer awaits structural studies of further small subunits from other CRISPR effector complexes.

CRISPR interference: a structural perspective.

CRISPR (cluster of regularly interspaced palindromic repeats) is a prokaryotic adaptive defence system, providing immunity against mobile genetic elements such as viruses. Genomically encoded crRNA (CRISPR RNA) is used by Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins to target and subsequently degrade nucleic acids of invading entities in a sequence-dependent manner. The process is known as 'interference'. In the present review we cover recent progress on the structural biology of the CRISPR/Cas system, focusing on the Cas proteins and complexes that catalyse crRNA biogenesis and interference. Structural studies have helped in the elucidation of key mechanisms, including the recognition and cleavage of crRNA by the Cas6 and Cas5 proteins, where remarkable diversity at the level of both substrate recognition and catalysis has become apparent. The RNA-binding RAMP (repeat-associated mysterious protein) domain is present in the Cas5, Cas6, Cas7 and Cmr3 protein families and RAMP-like domains are found in Cas2 and Cas10. Structural analysis has also revealed an evolutionary link between the small subunits of the type I and type III-B interference complexes. Future studies of the interference complexes and their constituent components will transform our understanding of the system.

Structure of a dimeric crenarchaeal Cas6 enzyme with an atypical active site for CRISPR RNA processing.

The competition between viruses and hosts is played out in all branches of life. Many prokaryotes have an adaptive immune system termed 'CRISPR' (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) which is based on the capture of short pieces of viral DNA. The captured DNA is integrated into the genomic DNA of the organism flanked by direct repeats, transcribed and processed to generate crRNA (CRISPR RNA) that is loaded into a variety of effector complexes. These complexes carry out sequence-specific detection and destruction of invading mobile genetic elements. In the present paper, we report the structure and activity of a Cas6 (CRISPR-associated 6) enzyme (Sso1437) from Sulfolobus solfataricus responsible for the generation of unit-length crRNA species. The crystal structure reveals an unusual dimeric organization that is important for the enzyme's activity. In addition, the active site lacks the canonical catalytic histidine residue that has been viewed as an essential feature of the Cas6 family. Although several residues contribute towards catalysis, none is absolutely essential. Coupled with the very low catalytic rate constants of the Cas6 family and the plasticity of the active site, this suggests that the crRNA recognition and chaperone-like activities of the Cas6 family should be considered as equal to or even more important than their role as traditional enzymes.

Structure and mechanism of the CMR complex for CRISPR-mediated antiviral immunity.

The prokaryotic clusters of regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR) system utilizes genomically encoded CRISPR RNA (crRNA), derived from invading viruses and incorporated into ribonucleoprotein complexes with CRISPR-associated (CAS) proteins, to target and degrade viral DNA or RNA on subsequent infection. RNA is targeted by the CMR complex. In Sulfolobus solfataricus, this complex is composed of seven CAS protein subunits (Cmr1-7) and carries a diverse "payload" of targeting crRNA. The crystal structure of Cmr7 and low-resolution structure of the complex are presented. S. solfataricus CMR cleaves RNA targets in an endonucleolytic reaction at UA dinucleotides. This activity is dependent on the 8 nt repeat-derived 5' sequence in the crRNA, but not on the presence of a protospacer-associated motif (PAM) in the target. Both target and guide RNAs can be cleaved, although a single molecule of guide RNA can support the degradation of multiple targets.