Osteochondritis dissecans of the talar dome in patients with tarsal coalition.

OBJECTIVE: Tarsal coalition is known to cause abnormal talocrural stress, hindfoot malalignment, and ankle sprains. These can all be associated with osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the talar dome. We present the first detailed description of a series of talar OCDs occurring in patients with tarsal coalition, with the goal of determining whether there is an increased prevalence of OCDs among patients with tarsal coalition. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We studied ankle MRIs in 57 patients with tarsal coalitions, excluding those with a reported inciting traumatic event. The MRIs were performed on magnetic field strengths ranging from 0.3 to 1.5 T and included axial, coronal, and sagittal T1 and T2 or PD fat-suppressed sequences. We evaluated the morphology and location of classically described OCDs in these patients, type and location of concomitant tarsal coalition, and, when available, the presence of pes planus and hindfoot valgus on weight-bearing radiographs. Chi-squared analysis was used to compare categorical variables and a Student's t test was used for parametric continuous variables. Additionally, logistic regression was used to compute the odds ratio of talar OCD associated with patient age, gender, laterality, pes planus status, hindfoot valgus status, and coalition type. RESULTS: Eighty-nine percent of tarsal coalitions were non-osseous coalitions and the calcaneonavicular space was the most common site of abnormal tarsal connection (54.4%). In the 29 patients with tarsal coalitions and talar OCDs, OCDs commonly occurred medially (75.9%). In the sagittal plane, talar OCDs occurred centrally, with only one case sparing the central talar dome. The mean surface area of the 29 OCDs was 89.7 mm2. Both osseous coalition and hindfoot valgus were associated with smaller talar OCD mean surface area (p = 0.015 and p = 0.0001, respectively). There was no association between depth and surface area of talar OCD with either coalition location or presence of pes planus (coalition location: p = 0.455 for depth and p = 0.295 for surface area; presence of pes planus: p = 0.593 for depth and p = 0.367 for surface area). CONCLUSION: Talar OCD prevalence is higher in patients with tarsal coalition than that reported for the general population. This occurrence may relate to altered biomechanics and repetitive talocrural stress owing to altered subtalar motion, particularly given the findings of increased odds of talar OCD in older patients, as well as weak associations between OCD surface area and both non-osseous coalition and hindfoot alignment. However, we did not find any specific OCD morphologic features attributable to the precise location of the tarsal coalition.

Practical ultrasonographic technique to precisely identify and differentiate tendons and ligaments of the elbow at the level of the humeral epicondyles: anatomical study.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a practical step-by-step technique to precisely identify and differentiate tendons and ligaments attaching to the humeral epicondyles, to confirm through gross anatomical study the accurate structure identification provided by this technique and to determine the frequency at which each structure can be identified in healthy volunteers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: First, ten fresh frozen cadavers (6 men, age at death = 58-92 years) were examined by two musculoskeletal radiologists and a step-by-step technique for the identification of tendons and ligaments at the level of humeral epicondyles was developed. Second, the accurate identification of structures was confirmed through gross anatomical study including anatomical sections on five specimens and layer-by-layer dissection technique on five others. Finally, 12 healthy volunteers (6 men, average age = 36, range = 28-52) were scanned by two radiologists following the same technique. RESULTS: An ultrasonographic technique based on the recognition of bony landmarks and the use of ultrasonographic signs to differentiate overlapping structures was developed and validated through gross anatomical study. In healthy volunteers, most tendons and ligaments were identified and well-defined in ≥ 80% of cases, except for the extensor carpi radialis brevis and extensor digiti minimi tendons on the lateral epicondyle (having common attachments with the extensor digitorum communis) and the palmaris longus tendon on the medial epicondyle (absent, or common attachment with the flexor carpi radialis). CONCLUSION: A step-by-step approach to the ultrasonographic assessment of tendons and ligaments at the humeral epicondyles allowed accurate identification of and differentiation among these structures, in particular those relevant to pathological conditions.

Correction to: Distal insertional anatomy of the triceps brachii muscle: MRI assessment in cadaveric specimens employing histologic correlation and Play-doh® models of the anatomic findings.

Figures 9, 10, 11, 12 and 15 corrected.

Distal insertional anatomy of the triceps brachii muscle: MRI assessment in cadaveric specimens employing histologic correlation and Play-doh® models of the anatomic findings.

OBJECTIVES: Assess the insertional anatomy of the distal aspect of the triceps brachii muscle using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in cadavers with histologic correlation and Play-doh® models of the anatomic findings. MATERIALS: Elbows were obtained from twelve cadaveric arm specimens by transverse sectioning through the proximal portion of the humerus and the midportion of the radius and ulna. MRI was performed in all elbows. Two of the elbow specimens were then dissected while ten were studied histologically. Subsequently, Play-doh® models of the anatomic findings of the distal attachment sites of the triceps brachii muscle were prepared. RESULTS: MRI showed a dual partitioned appearance of the distal attachment sites into the olecranon in all specimens. In the deeper tissue planes, the medial head muscle insertion was clearly identified while superficially, the terminal portion of the long and lateral heads appeared as a conjoined tendon. Histologic analysis, however, showed continuous tissue rather than separate structures attaching to the olecranon. CONCLUSION: Although MRI appeared to reveal separate and distinct attachments of the triceps brachii muscle into the olecranon, histologic analysis delineated complex but continuous tissue related to the attachments of the three heads of this muscle. The Play-doh® models were helpful for the comprehension of this complex anatomy and might serve as a valuable educational tool when applied to the analysis of other musculoskeletal regions.

Accessory anterolateral talar facet associated with tarsal coalition: prevalence and cross-sectional characterization.

OBJECTIVE: The accessory anterolateral talar facet (AALTF) is a developmental entity described as a potential cause for rigid, painful flat foot. This study evaluates the possible association between the AALTF and other flat foot etiologies, specifically different types of tarsal coalitions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We evaluated patients with tarsal coalition or sinus tarsi syndrome for an AALTF on CT and MRI. Exclusion criteria included acute ankle trauma, recent surgery, motion or metal artifacts. We evaluated the AALTF length and height, and the lateral talocalcaneal structures for associated findings. The presence of calcaneonavicular (CNC), intra-articular middle facet talocalcaneal (MFTCC), posterior facet talocalcaneal (PFTCC), extra-articular posteromedial talocalcaneal (EATCC) and other rare coalitions were also evaluated. RESULTS: One hundred eighty-seven patients were included (age range 14-91 years; mean ± SD; 50 ± 17 years). The AALTF prevalence in the study population was 31.55% (59/187), 40.91% in men, and 23.23% in women. The AALTF average length was 4.5 ± 1.1 mm, and average height was 8.9 ± 3.4 mm. The AALTF was found to be significantly associated with lateral talocalcaneal osseous changes such as cortical thickening and cystic changes (34/59 and 24/59 respectively, P < 0.01). The AALTF was also found to be significantly associated with sinus tarsi edema on MRI (45/52, P < 0.05). The AALTF was also significantly associated with EATCC (19/59, P < 0.01) and MFTCC (7/59, P < 0.05). No significant association was found with CNC, PFTCC or other rare coalitions. CONCLUSION: The AALTF is common and significantly associated with some tarsal coalitions, specifically EATCC and MFTCC. When an AALTF or coalition is identified, special attention should be made to evaluate for other associated pathologies, as this could potentially affect management.

Pes Anserinus: Anatomy and Pathology of Native and Harvested Tendons.

OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this article is to review the anatomy and pathology of the pes anserinus to increase the accuracy of imaging interpretation of findings affecting these medial knee structures. CONCLUSION. The pes anserinus, consisting of the conjoined tendons of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus muscles and their insertions at the medial aspect of the knee, is often neglected during imaging assessment. Common pathologic conditions affecting the pes anserinus include overuse, acute trauma, iatrogenic disorders, and tumors and tumorlike lesions.

Flexor carpi radialis brevis: a rare accessory muscle presenting as an intersection syndrome of the wrist.

The flexor carpi radialis brevis (FCRB) is a rare accessory muscle of the forearm and wrist. It is typically asymptomatic, but has been discovered either incidentally during cadaveric studies or at the time of surgery in patients with distal forearm injury. Rarely, the FCRB muscle is associated with pain. We report a patient with wrist pain related to intersection between the tendon of the FCRB muscle and the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscle, with an associated longitudinal split tear of the FCR tendon, documented by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). To our knowledge, this is only the second report in the English literature of this intersection syndrome.

The location of the peroneus longus tendon in the cuboid groove: sonographic study in various positions of the ankle-foot in asymptomatic volunteers.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the normal location of the peroneus longus tendon (PL) in the cuboid groove in various ankle-foot positions by ultrasonography in asymptomatic volunteers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ultrasonographic assessment of the PL in the cuboid groove was performed in 20 feet of ten healthy volunteers. Each PL was examined in five ankle-foot positions (i.e., neutral, dorsiflexion, plantar-flexion, supination, and pronation). The PL location was qualitatively categorized as "inside" when the PL was entirely within the cuboid groove, as "overlying" when some part of the PL was perched on the cuboid tuberosity, and as "outside" when the PL was entirely on the cuboid tuberosity. For quantitative evaluation of the PL location, the distance between the PL and the cuboid groove was measured. The width of the cuboid groove was measured in the neutral position. RESULTS: The PL location did not significantly change with changes in the ankle-foot position. Qualitatively, an "overlying" PL was the most common type, regardless of the ankle-foot position. "Inside" PLs were found in only 35, 20, 30, 25, and 35% of feet in neutral, dorsiflexion, plantar-flexion, supination, and pronation positions, respectively. The quantitative PL location was also not significantly different among all ankle-foot positions and it was significantly negatively correlated with the cuboid groove width. CONCLUSIONS: In healthy volunteers, 65% or more of the PLs were partially or completely located outside of the cuboid groove, regardless of the ankle-foot position. The PL location relative to the cuboid groove was related to the cuboid groove width.

Classification criteria for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis: a lack of consensus.

Objectives: DISH is a condition characterized by flowing ossifications of the spine with or without ossifications of entheses elsewhere in the body. Studies on the prevalence and pathogenesis of DISH use a variety of partly overlapping combinations of classification criteria, making meaningful comparisons across the literature difficult. The aim of this study was to systematically summarize the available criteria to support the development of a more uniform set of diagnostic/classification criteria. Methods: A search was performed in Pubmed, Embase, Cochrane Library and Web of Science using the term DISH and its synonyms. Articles were included when two independent observers agreed that the articles proposed a new set of classification criteria for DISH. All retrieved articles were evaluated for methodological quality, and the presented criteria were extracted. Results: A total of 24 articles met the inclusion criteria. In all articles, spinal hyperostosis was required for the diagnosis of DISH. Peripheral, extraspinal manifestations were included as a (co-)requirement for the diagnosis DISH in five articles. Most discrepancies revolved around the threshold for the number of vertebral bodies affected and to defining different developmental phases of DISH. More than half of the retrieved articles described a dichotomous set of criteria and did not consider the progressive character of DISH. Conclusion: This systematic review summarizes the available different classification criteria for DISH, which highlights the lack of consensus on the diagnosis of (early) DISH. Consensus criteria, including consecutive phases of new bone formation that characterize DISH, can be developed based upon established diagnostic/classification criteria.

Utilization of CT scanning associated with complex spine surgery.

BACKGROUND: Due to the risk associated with exposure to ionizing radiation, there is an urgent need to identify areas of CT scanning overutilization. While increased use of diagnostic spinal imaging has been documented, no previous research has estimated the magnitude of follow-up imaging used to evaluate the postoperative spine. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study quantifies the association between spinal surgery and CT utilization. An insurance database (Humana, Inc.) with ≈ 19 million enrollees was employed, representing 8 consecutive years (2007-2014). Surgical and imaging procedures were captured by anatomic-specific CPT codes. Complex surgeries included all cervical, thoracic and lumbar instrumented spine fusions. Simple surgeries included discectomy and laminectomy. Imaging was restricted to CT and MRI. Postoperative imaging frequency extended to 5-years post-surgery. RESULTS: There were 140,660 complex spinal procedures and 39,943 discectomies and 49,889 laminectomies. MRI was the predominate preoperative imaging modality for all surgical procedures (median: 80%; range: 73-82%). Postoperatively, CT prevalence following complex procedures increased more than two-fold from 6 months (18%) to 5 years (≥40%), and patients having a postoperative CT averaged two scans. For simple procedures, the prevalence of postoperative CT scanning never exceeded 30%. CONCLUSIONS: CT scanning is used frequently for follow-up imaging evaluation following complex spine surgery. There is emerging evidence of an increased cancer risk due to ionizing radiation exposure with CT. In the setting of complex spine surgery, actions to mitigate this risk should be considered and include reducing nonessential scans, using the lowest possible radiation dose protocols, exerting greater selectivity in monitoring the developing fusion construct, and adopting non-ferromagnetic implant biomaterials that facilitate MRI postoperatively.

Segond fracture: an MR evaluation of 146 patients with emphasis on the avulsed bone fragment and what attaches to it.

OBJECTIVE: To re-evaluate the Segond fragment emphasizing those structures that attach to the fragment in patients with reported acute/subacute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, and to clarify the nomenclature used to describe these structures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A search of databases of knee MR examinations over 4.5 years with reported ACL tears yielded 19,726 studies. Using strict exclusion criteria, a total of 146 MR studies with acute/subacute ACL tears were re-assessed with respect to the Segond fragment's size, shape, orientation, location, displacement, attaching soft tissue structures, and associated osseous and/or soft tissue injuries. RESULTS: Segond fractures were present in 1.25 % of reported acute/subacute ACL tears. The fragment measured 11.9 × 7.3 × 3.27 mm, being thin, ovoid, vertically oriented, situated anterolaterally along the proximal tibial epiphysis, posterior to Gerdy's tubercle and inferior to the lateral tibial plateau, and displaced up to 6 mm laterally. The attached structures were the meniscotibial component of the mid-third lateral capsular ligament (mt-MTLCL) in 58.9 %, both the mt-MTLCL and the posterior fibers of the ITB (pf-ITB) in 35.6 %, and the pf-ITB in 5.48 % of cases. In no case was there an additional attaching structure that did not meet criteria for the mt-MTLCL or the pf-ITB. CONCLUSION: The mt-MTLCL most commonly attaches to the Segond fragment, but the pf-ITB can also attach to this fragment. In no case was there an additional attaching structure that did not meet criteria for the mt-MTLCL or the pf-ITB.

Abnormal Bone Marrow Signal Intensity in the Phalanges of the Foot as a Manifestation of Raynaud Phenomenon: A Report of Six Patients.

OBJECTIVE: The objectives of our study were to describe the MRI findings of pedal phalangeal bone marrow edema in patients with Raynaud phenomenon (RP) and discuss the clinical implications of these MRI findings. CONCLUSION: There is a progressive distal-to-proximal pattern of pedal phalangeal bone marrow edema on MRI in patients with RP. This knowledge may allow early diagnosis and treatment of rheumatologic disorders that are potentially associated with RP.

Acute and Stress-related Injuries of Bone and Cartilage: Pertinent Anatomy, Basic Biomechanics, and Imaging Perspective.

Bone or cartilage, or both, are frequently injured related to either a single episode of trauma or repetitive overuse. The resulting structural damage is varied, governed by the complex macroscopic and microscopic composition of these tissues. Furthermore, the biomechanical properties of both cartilage and bone are not uniform, influenced by the precise age and activity level of the person and the specific anatomic location within the skeleton. Of the various histologic components that are found in cartilage and bone, the collagen fibers and bundles are most influential in transmitting the forces that are applied to them, explaining in large part the location and direction of the resulting internal stresses that develop within these tissues. Therefore, thorough knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and biomechanics of normal bone and cartilage serves as a prerequisite to a full understanding of both the manner in which these tissues adapt to physiologic stresses and the patterns of tissue failure that develop under abnormal conditions. Such knowledge forms the basis for more accurate assessment of the diverse imaging features that are encountered following acute traumatic and stress-related injuries to the skeleton. (©) RSNA, 2016.

Intramuscular migration of calcium hydroxyapatite crystal deposits involving the rotator cuff tendons of the shoulder: report of 11 patients.

OBJECTIVE: The intent of the study is to describe an unusual pattern of intramuscular migration of calcific deposits related to hydroxyapatite deposition disease (HADD) involving the rotator cuff, to illustrate the characteristic imaging features of this phenomenon, and to discuss the clinical significance of such migration. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A series of cases of intramuscular accumulation of calcium hydroxyapatite crystals collected over a 7-year period at multiple hospitals within the same academic institution were retrospectively reviewed. RESULTS: The patient group was composed of seven men and four women, ranging in age from 51 to 79 years, with a mean age of 63 years. All subjects presented with acute shoulder pain. The majority of subjects reported the spontaneous onset of the symptoms (64%), while others reported weight lifting (27%) and a fall on the arm (9%) as the mechanisms of injury. The right shoulder was affected in 73% of the subjects. The supraspinatus was the most commonly affected muscle (82%), followed by the infraspinatus muscle (36%). CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of the imaging features of intramuscular migration of hydroxyapatite deposits is important in order to avoid the erroneous diagnosis of other causes of muscle edema and inflammation such as myotendinous injury, myositis, subacute denervation, and neoplasm.

Deep lateral notch sign and double notch sign in complete tears of the anterior cruciate ligament: MR imaging evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: To systematically compare the notches of the lateral femoral condyle (LFC) in patients with and without complete tears of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in MR studies by (1) evaluating the dimensions of the lateral condylopatellar sulcus; (2) evaluating the presence and appearance of an extra or a double notch and its association with such tears. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study was approved by our institutional review board, and informed written patient consent was waived. In 58 cases of complete ACL tears and 37 control cases with intact ACL, the number of notches on the LFC was determined, and the depth and anteroposterior (AP) length of each notch were measured in each third of the LFC. The chi-square test, t-test, and logistic regression model were used to analyze demographic data and image findings, as appropriate. RESULTS: Presence of more than one notch demonstrated a sensitivity of 17.2%, specificity of 100%, positive predictive value of 100%, and negative predictive value of 43.5% for detecting a complete ACL tear. Lateral third depth measurement (p = 0.028) was a significant associated finding with a complete ACL tear. CONCLUSION: A deep notch in the lateral third of the LFC is a significant associated finding with a complete ACL tear when compared with an ACL-intact control group, and the presence of more than one notch is a specific but insensitive sign of such a tear.

Intramedullary fat globules related to bone trauma: a new MR imaging finding.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to describe intraosseous fat globules related to bone trauma that are detectable with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to define the relationship of this finding to fracture and bone contusion, to establish the frequency and associated findings. A proposed pathogenesis is presented. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 419 knee MRI examinations in patients with a history of recent injury and MRI findings of fracture or bone contusion. As a control population, 268 knee MRI examinations in patients without MRI findings of recent bone injury were also reviewed. RESULTS: Eight of 419 (1.9%) patients with acute or subacute knee injury with positive findings of osseous trauma on MRI demonstrated intraosseous fat globules. The mean age of patients with fat globules was greater than that of those without fat globules, and the finding was more commonly seen in women. Fat globules were hyperintense to the normal fatty marrow present elsewhere in the bone on TI-weighted imaging and had a surrounding halo of high signal intensity on fluid-sensitive imaging. CONCLUSIONS: Intramedullary fat globules related to bone injury visible on MRI are thought to be due to coalesced fat released by the necrosis of fatty marrow cells. The pathogenesis is supported by histologic studies of fat globules related to osteomyelitis, bone contusions and fractures. As the medullary cavity of long bones in older patients contains more fat than hematopoetic bone marrow, it is likely that this finding is more common with advancing age.

Carpal bone cysts: MRI, gross pathology, and histology correlation in cadavers.

PURPOSE: Intraosseous cysts of carpal bones are frequently observed on routine imaging examinations of the wrist. There is controversy regarding the underlying pathogenesis of these cysts. In this study, we aimed to investigate the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) appearance of intracarpal bone cysts in correlation with histologic analysis, using cadaveric wrists. METHODS: Five freshly frozen cadaveric wrist specimens (from three women and two men; mean age at death, 80 years) were studied. Imaging was performed with T1-weighted fast spin-echo, and proton density-weighted fast spin-echo with and without fat-suppression. The existence of cysts was confirmed by comparing MRI and histology findings. Hematoxylin and eosin stain was performed on tissue slices of 3 mm thickness to analyze the structure of cysts and their communication with the joint cavity. RESULTS: Ten cysts were observed. In all cases, cysts were eccentrically located either in the subchondral bone or beneath the cortex. On histologic examination, there were regions of fat necrosis without inflammation or increased vascularity, surrounded by fibrous walls. There were no giant cells, cholesterol granules, or a true synovial lining. Mucoid change was rare. Fibrous component of cysts varied from small fibrous septa to well-formed walls. Some cysts communicated with the joint cavity. Two cysts were adjacent to ligamentous attachments. Those cysts with fibrous tissue demonstrated variable hypointensity on T2. CONCLUSION: In contrast to previous reports that described a mucoid composition of intracarpal bone cysts with occasional foamy macrophages, our observations support the concept that these lesions reflect a spectrum of fat necrosis and fibrous changes, without inflammation or hypervascularity. These cysts are typically surrounded by fibrous walls without a true synovial lining.

Prevalence of sternoclavicular joint calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystal deposition on computed tomography.

We sought to determine the prevalence of sternoclavicular (SC) joint calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystal deposition and its association with age, osteoarthritis, and atlantoaxial CPPD crystal deposition. In 209 consecutive patients, computed tomographic examinations of the cervical spine were retrospectively reviewed. Overall prevalence of CPPD crystal deposition in the SC joint was 17.2% (36/209), which increased with age (P<.0001). There was also a significant association between SC CPPD and osteoarthritis (P=.024) as well as atlantoaxial joint CPPD crystal deposition (P=.006).