School Performance in Third Grade After a Full-Day vs Part-Day Preschool Program.

This study assesses whether learning gains associated with full-day preschool were sustained through third grade by analyzing achievement scores and need for remediation.

Early Childhood Education and Midlife Ideal Cardiovascular Health in a Prospective Urban Cohort.

This cohort study assesses whether preschool is associated with long-term cardiovascular health as measured by the American Heart Association's Ideal Cardiovascular Health Index.

Evaluation of Midlife Educational Attainment Among Attendees of a Comprehensive Early Childhood Education Program in the Context of Early Adverse Childhood Experiences.

Importance: Educational attainment is a key social determinant of health and can be particularly consequential for racial and ethnic minority populations. Although the consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are well established, there is little research on protective factors and policy-relevant strategies to mitigate ACE-related inequities. Objective: To examine associations between early ACEs, comprehensive early intervention, and midlife educational attainment in a cohort of predominantly Black participants. Design, Setting, and Participants: The Chicago Longitudinal Study is a prospective cohort study of Black and Latinx children from Chicago, Illinois. The intervention group included 989 children entering the Child-Parent Center (CPC) preschool Early Childhood Education (ECE) program in the 1980s. The comparison group comprised 550 children participating in usual early childhood services. All participants were followed up for 30 years after the end of the intervention. Analyses were conducted from July 1 to September 1, 2022. Intervention: Attendance at the CPC preschool ECE program. Main Outcomes and Measures: A standard battery of early childhood ACEs (conventional ACEs), a set of early childhood ACEs more commonly associated with high-poverty contexts (expanded ACEs), and educational attainment at 35 years of age were measured from self-report and administrative records. Results: The original Chicago Longitudinal Study sample comprised 1539 participants (1430 Black participants [92.9%]; 774 female participants [50.3%]). Data on educational attainment and ACEs were available for 1083 of 1467 living participants (73.8%). Participants in the present study (1013 Black participants [93.5%]; 594 female participants [54.9%]) were a mean (SD) age of 35.1 (0.3) years at completion of the midlife survey. For the comparison group but not the CPC intervention group, having 1 or more conventional or expanded ACEs in early childhood was associated with fewer years of education (ß = -0.64; 95% CI, -1.02 to -0.26), reduced likelihood of attaining a bachelor's degree or higher (odds ratio, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.09-0.70), and reduced likelihood of attaining an associate's degree or higher (odds ratio, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.11-0.62) after adjusting for covariates. Moderation analyses indicated that CPC participants with either conventional or expanded ACEs in early childhood attained a bachelor's degree or higher and an associate's degree or higher at rates similar to CPC participants without early ACEs (15.4% vs 13.6% for bachelor's degree or higher; 22.4% vs 19.9% for associate's degree or higher). Conversely, comparison group participants with early ACEs had significantly lower rates of educational attainment than their counterparts without ACEs (3.7% vs 12.1% for bachelor's degree or higher; 5.6% vs 17.1% for associate's degree or higher). Conclusions: This cohort study suggests that early ACEs were associated with reduced educational attainment for the comparison group but not for the group participating in the CPC comprehensive early intervention. These results build on research suggesting that youths at higher risk can benefit most from intervention and support ECE as a tool for reducing ACE-related disparities.

Psychological well-being in midlife following early childhood intervention.

The present study is the first to examine the relations between participation in a public early childhood intervention (the Child-Parent Center (CPC) program) and psychological well-being (or, positive functioning) into early mid-life. Data are drawn from the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), which has followed a cohort of 1,539 individuals who grew up in urban poverty for over four decades. Approximately two-thirds of the original study cohort participated in the CPC program in early childhood; the rest comprise a demographically matched comparison group. Participants’ psychological functioning at age 35-37 was assessed using the Ryff Scales of Psychological Wellbeing. Results support a positive relationship between CPC preschool participation and long-term psychological wellbeing. Moderated mediation (e.g., whether CPC effects on wellbeing differ across subgroups) and potential mechanisms across multiple social-ecological levels (according to the 5-Hypothesis Model of early intervention) are also empirically investigated. Future directions for child development research, early childhood intervention, and public policy are discussed.

Closing Achievement Gaps Through Preschool-To-Third-Grade Programs.

Achievement gaps by family income, race, and ethnicity have persisted for decades. Yet only in recent years has this major social problem become a national priority in the U.S. and many other countries as concern rises over growing economic inequalities. In this paper, we document gaps in school readiness and achievement in the U.S. and how they adversely affect the life course development of children and families from underrepresented groups. We emphasize the promising role of preschool-to-3rd grade (P-3) programs to reduce a variety of achievement gaps through comprehensive strategies that enrich educational and family experiences during most of the first decade of life. Implementation of the core elements of effective learning experiences, collaborative leadership, aligned curriculum, parent involvement and engagement, professional development, and continuity and stability in the Child-Parent Center Program have shown relatively strong and sustained effects on school achievement, especially for Black children growing up in urban poverty. This evidence from the Chicago Longitudinal Study and other projects suggests that broader scale up of truly comprehensive approaches that begin early, continue through most of the first decade, and are multilevel in scope can make a bigger difference than many existing strategies in reducing achievement gaps and their persistence.

Is more child-initiated always better? Exploring relations between child-initiated instruction and preschoolers' school readiness.

Although research suggests that the use of child-initiated vs. teacher-directed instructional practices in early childhood education has implications for learning and development, the precise nature of these effects remains unclear. Using data from the Midwest Child-Parent Center (CPC) Expansion Project, the present study examined the possibility that a blend of child- and teacher-directed practices best promotes school readiness among preschoolers experiencing high levels of sociodemographic risk and explored whether the optimal blend varies based on child characteristics. Sixty-two CPC preschool teachers reported their instructional practices throughout the year, using a newly developed questionnaire - the Classroom Activity Report (CAR). The average reported proportion of child-initiated instruction was examined in relation to students' end-of-year performance on a routine school readiness assessment (N = 1,289). Although there was no main effect of child-initiated instruction on school readiness, there was a significant interaction between instruction and student age. Four-year-olds' school readiness generally improved as the proportion of child-initiated time increased, while three-year-olds showed a U-shaped pattern. The present findings add to the evidence that child-initiated instruction might support preschoolers' school readiness, although they also suggest this relation may not always be linear. They also point to the importance of examining instructional strategies in relation to student characteristics, in order to tailor strategies to the student population. The CAR has potential as a brief, practical measurement tool that can support program monitoring and professional development.

Early Education and Adult Health: Age 37 Impacts and Economic Benefits of the Child-Parent Center Preschool Program.

This paper evaluates the long-term impacts of the Chicago Child-Parent Center (CPC) program, a comprehensive early childhood program launched in the 1960s, on the physical and mental health outcomes. This study follows a cohort of 1539 participants born in 1979-1980 and surveyed most recently at age 35-37 by employing a matched study design created by including all students who were enrolled in kindergarten classrooms in CPC school sites as well as entire kindergarten classrooms in a matched set of similar high-poverty schools. Using propensity score weighting that addresses potential issues with differential attrition and nonrandom treatment assignment, results reveal that CPC preschool participation is associated with significantly lower rates of adverse health outcomes such as smoking and diabetes. Further, evaluating the economic impacts of the preschool component of the program, the study finds a benefit-cost ratio in the range of 1.35 to 3.66 (net benefit: $3,896) indicating that the health benefits of the program by themselves offset the costs of the program even without considering additional benefits arising from increased educational attainment and reduced involvement in crime reported in earlier cost-benefit analyses. The findings are robust to corrections for multiple hypothesis testing, sensitivity analysis using a range of discount rates, and Monte Carlo analysis to account for uncertainty in outcomes.

Psychiatric and substance use disorders in a predominately low-income, black sample in early midlife.

Decades of research have documented elevated rates of psychopathology among individuals affected by poverty. However, many studies have relied on predominately White samples, and on brief symptom screening measures which may not fully capture the experiences of individuals of color (who are disproportionately affected by poverty in the United States.) The present study examines prevalence rates of probable major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use disorder, and alcohol use disorder in a predominately Black sample that grew up in urban poverty, utilizing structured neuropsychiatric interview methods. Data are drawn from a subsample of the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), which has followed a large cohort for over four decades. Outcomes were assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) 7.0.2. Results indicate high probable rates of all measured outcomes, with notably high rates of substance use and alcohol use disorder compared to rates reported in previous national studies. Differences by sex and childhood neighborhood poverty, as well as significant comorbidity among psychiatric, substance and alcohol use disorders were also detected. Findings underscore an urgent need for community-based, culturally tailored prevention and intervention initiatives to support the mental health of individuals living in poverty. The high prevalence of psychiatric, substance and alcohol use disorders in this study likely reflect systematic inequities faced by low-income people of color in the United States. Future directions for research and practice are discussed.

Assessment of a Comprehensive Early Childhood Education Program and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Midlife.

Importance: Educational attainment is an underrecognized factor associated with racial disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Early childhood programs providing comprehensive family services can promote educational and socioeconomic success, but few, if any, studies of large-scale programs have assessed their associations with midlife CVD risk and mediating factors. Objective: To examine the association between an early childhood program providing multisystemic services from ages 3 to 9 years with midlife CVD risk and whether years of education mediate these associations. Design, Setting, and Participants: Using a matched-group, quasi-experimental design, a cohort of Black and Hispanic children in the Chicago Longitudinal Study enrolled in an established early childhood program from 1983 to 1989 or the usual services were followed up for 30 years after the end of the intervention. A midlife survey on well-being was administered when the participants were aged 37 years. Analyses were conducted from September 1, 2020, to October 15, 2020. Intervention: The Child-Parent Center (CPC) Education Program provides school-based educational enrichment and comprehensive family services for 6 years, from ages 3 to 9 years (preschool to third grade [P-3]). Main Outcomes and Measures: General and hard Framingham Risk Scores (FRSs) were calculated from self-reported physical health and behavior profiles in the midlife Chicago Longitudinal Study survey. Years of education completed at age 34 years were measured primarily from administrative records. Results: There were 1539 participants in the original sample (1430 Black participants [92.9%]; 108 Hispanic participants [7.0%]; 1 White participant [0.1%]); 1104 of 1401 participants (78.8%) in the tracked sample completed a midlife survey on well-being by age 37 years, and 1060 participants had data available for analysis (mean [SD] age, 34.9 [1.4] years; 565 women [53.3%]), including 523 participants who grew up in high-poverty contexts. After adjusting for 17 baseline attributes and differential attrition via propensity score weighting, CPC preschool was associated with significantly lower general FRS (marginal coefficient, -2.2 percentage points [% hereafter]; 95% CI -0.7% to -3.6%; P = .004) and hard FRS (marginal coefficient, -1.6%; 95% CI -0.5% to -2.6%; P = .004), for a 20% reduction in cardiovascular disease risk. The program group was also less likely to have high-risk FRS status, including being in the top quartile of hard FRS (marginal coefficient, -7.2%; 95% CI, -0.3% to -11.6%; P = .02). Those who participated for 4 to 6 years (CPC P-3) had lower general FRS than those who participated for fewer years, but the difference was not significant (marginal coefficient, -1.2%; 95% CI, -2.5% to 0.2%; P = .09); longer participation was associated with placement in the median or higher risk category for general FRS (marginal coefficient, -7.9%; 95% CI -0.7% to -12.4%; P = .007) and hard FRS (marginal coefficient, -9.0%; 95% CI -0.6% to -11.4%; P = .02). Years of education completed by age 34 years accounted for up to 23% of the observed group differences for FRSs, including CPC preschool (general FRS, from -2.16% to -1.66%; difference = -0.5%) and P-3 (general FRS, from -1.16% to -0.71%; difference = -0.45%). Conclusions and Relevance: In this quasi-experimental design study, a comprehensive early childhood program for a community cohort at high risk of disparities was associated with lower CVD risk later in life. Corroborating previous research, years of education through college matriculation accounted for a sizable percentage of this association. Early childhood enrichment may contribute to CVD prevention.

Preschool instructional approaches and age 35 health and well-being.

In this study we sought to explore the association between preschool instructional approach and health and well-being at age 35 for a large sample of low-income children. Participants included 989 low-income, minority children who attended Child-Parent Center preschools as part of the Chicago Longitudinal Study from 1983 to 1985. Preschool curriculum was obtained from teacher reports and validated by program evaluators. These data were categorized by raters as: high teacher-directed and child-initiated; low teacher-directed and child-initiated; low teacher-directed and high child-initiated; or high teacher-directed and low child-initiated. Data on adult outcomes were obtained through surveys and administrative records. Those in preschool classrooms with high teacher-directed and child-initiated instruction had increased odds of having a livable wage (Odds Ratio(OR) = 2.02, p = 0.001), and decreased odds of felony arrest (OR = 0.39; p < 0.001), jail or incarceration (OR = 0.35, p = 0.001), and conviction (OR = 0.52, p = 0.002) at age 35 than those in low teacher-directed and child-initiated classrooms. Participants experiencing low teacher-directed and high child-initiated instruction had increased odds of having a livable wage (OR = 2.01, p = 0.002) and decreased odds of felony arrest (OR = 0.46; p < 0.001), jail or incarceration (OR = 0.53; p = 0.023), and conviction (OR = 0.57, p = 0.01) at age 35. Findings were consistent across many model specifications and adjustments for potential attrition bias. Child-initiated instruction in preschool is a robust predictor of adulthood well-being. Early education prevention efforts to establish a blend of child-initiated and teacher-directed teaching philosophies affords the opportunity for long-term impacts on economic and criminal outcomes in adulthood.

Educational growth trajectories in adulthood: Findings from an inner-city cohort.

Educational attainment is typically examined as a static status. As adult learners have become the new trend in higher education, the changes in educational attainment in adulthood warrant more attention. Using data from the Chicago Longitudinal study (CLS), an ongoing panel investigation of 1,539 children, predictors of educational growth trajectories in adulthood were investigated. Of the study sample (N = 1,418), 51.8% were women, 93.2% were Black, 6.8% were Hispanic, 83.4% were eligible for free lunch between birth and age 3. The average age of the study sample in June 2015 was 35.1, ranging from 34.4 to 36.6. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to analyze the changes in educational attainment between ages 24 and 35. Findings indicate that mothers not completing high school by child's age 3 and days of absence at school were significantly associated with lower educational attainment at age 24. Classroom adjustment, student college expectations, 8th grade reading scores, and on-time high school graduation were significantly associated with higher educational attainment at age 24. Classroom adjustment, 8th grade reading score, and on-time high school graduation were significantly associated with a positive growth of education between ages 24 and 35. Findings suggest that improving academic achievement and socioemotional learning skills in elementary and middle school and promoting on-time high school graduation are likely to increase one's chances to continue pursuing higher education in adulthood for Black low-income children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Adverse childhood experiences in a low-income black cohort: The importance of context.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) have been definitively linked with cross-domain life course well-being. While scales measuring the ten "Conventional" ACEs (ACEs-C; intrafamilial experiences of abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction) are parsimonious, use of such scales alone may fail to capture crucial information about adversity, particularly in youth growing up in underresourced areas. Patterns and disparities in Conventional and Expanded ACEs (ACEs-E; experiences more common in impoverished and densely populated areas) were examined in the large, primarily Black Chicago Longitudinal Study cohort. This cohort has been followed from the 1980s to the present. Participants in the present study, comprising over 70% of the original sample, responded to a follow-up survey between 2012 and 2017. ACE information was collected both prospectively and retrospectively. Overall ACE prevalence and differences in ACEs by sex and risk were explored using logistic regression with adjusted and unadjusted odds ratios, and chi-squared tests. Higher sociodemographic risk in early childhood was associated with higher rates of ACEs-C through adolescence. Males endorsed higher rates of ACEs-E, particularly relating to violent crime. Nearly 1/5 of participants reported only ACEs-E, which are often not measured when assessing ACEs. Findings underscore enduring effects of early childhood risk factors on ACE exposure, as well as contributions of community characteristics to childhood adversity. Given strong associations between ACEs, environment, and well-being, enhancing inclusivity in our understanding of childhood adversity is a public health priority.

Socio-Emotional Learning among Low-Income Prekindergarteners: The Roles of Individual Factors and Early Intervention.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: Previous research has indicated that low-income children are at increased risk for socio-emotional problems, which may contribute to socioeconomic disparities in wellbeing and academic achievement. The present study examines socio-emotional learning (SEL) across the prekindergarten year in a low-income, racially and ethnically diverse sample of Chicago Public School students (N=2,630). The sample included participants of the Child-Parent Center early educational intervention program (N=1,724) and a propensity-score matched comparison group (N=906). At the beginning of the prekindergarten year, teachers rated boys and lower income participants as having relatively lower SEL skills, and CPC participants and older children as having slightly higher SEL skills. Over time, CPC participants exhibited significantly greater rates of SEL growth, ending the prekindergarten year with teacher-rated SEL scores that were an average 10.30% higher than control participants. There were no significant differences in SEL growth over time by sex or family income. PRACTICE AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Multicomponent, school-based early intervention programs (e.g., CPC) have the potential to promote SEL among at-risk populations.

Child development as social action: Reflections on four underrated contributions of Edward Zigler to science and society.

In a career spanning six decades, Edward Zigler redefined developmental psychology as the equal integration of scientific inquiry and evidence with social policy formulation and analysis to improve child well-being. The theme of his accumulated work was advancing child development as social action for children and families. Besides early childhood intervention and policy, for which he devoted most of his time, Dr. Zigler did pioneering work in education and school reform, social policy, prevention, child maltreatment, family support, developmental disabilities, and in service to government. In this article, I reflect on four of Dr. Zigler's major contributions to science and society that are underrated and, in many respects, under-appreciated in the larger context of the field. These are (a) historical analysis of Head Start, (b) conceptualization and analysis of motivation as a key component of early childhood program impacts, (c) development of preschool-to-third-grade programs and school reforms, and (d) critical analysis of theory, research, policy, and practice. Together, these and other contributions by Dr. Zigler provide a strong foundation to build a better society for all.

Preschool and Kindergarten Impacts of the Midwest Expansion of the Child-Parent Centers in the Saint Paul Public Schools.

The Midwest Child-Parent Center (CPC) Expansion began preschool implementation in fall 2012 in five Minnesota and Illinois districts. This study reports preschool and kindergarten impact findings for the Saint Paul Public School District. It is the first impact study of CPC outside of Chicago. After documenting that implementation quality was relatively high on the six CPC elements (effective learning, collaborative leadership, aligned curriculum, parent involvement, professional development, and continuity and stability), matched-group analyses of 433 students utilizing propensity score weighting indicated that CPC participants had significantly higher levels of language and literacy proficiency in both preschool and kindergarten than comparison-group participants in the usual district preschool and kindergarten programs. Overall composite effect sizes were .51 SD at the end of preschool and .36 SD at the end of kindergarten, which translate to performance gains of nearly half of a year. At the end of kindergarten, 61.0% of CPC participants met the district's literacy benchmark compared to 47.4% for the comparison group. We also found that parents of CPC participants attended a significantly greater number of school events and workshops. However, no differences favoring CPC were detected for preschool or kindergarten attendance. Impacts were generally similar for Dual Language Learners. Students with two years of CPC (preschool and kindergarten) showed better performance in kindergarten reading stage and fluency than comparison group but not compared to the 1-year group. This was similar for Dual Language Learners. Findings indicate that the CPC program shows evidence that it can be effectively scaled and that the program yields impacts in preschool and kindergarten that exceed the usual early childhood programming in Saint Paul.

Interstate Variability in COVID-19 Infection and Death Rates: Do Climate, Health Conditions, and Distancing Policies Matter?

A comprehensive model to explain variation across U. S. states in COVID-19 outcomes through August 7, 2020 indicated that improvements in social distancing, intermediate spring relative humidity and temperature, and lower concentrations of elderly residents were associated with lower rates of coronavirus/COVID-19 infection and mortality as well as changes over time. These influences were observed after accounting for testing prevalence per 100,000 state residents. Findings indicate the benefits of continued preventive efforts by states and the value of tailoring resources at multiple levels of risk.

Early Childhood Education and Adult Depression: An Attrition Reanalysis With Inverse Propensity Score Weighting.

In a previous study of the Child-Parent Centers (CPC) education program, preschool participation was linked to a 4.6 percentage point reduction (26%) in depressive symptoms at ages 22-24 over the matched comparison group enrolling the usual programs. The present study reanalyzed these data in the Chicago Longitudinal Study to address potential attrition bias since more than a quarter of the sample was missing on the outcome. Using inverse probability weighting (IPW) involving 32 predictors of sample retention, findings for the 1,142 participants growing up in high-poverty neighborhoods indicated that CPC participation was associated with a 7.1 percentage point reduction (95% CI = [-9.7, -5.4]) in one or more depressive symptoms (39% reduction over the comparison group). Although this marginal effect was within the confidence interval of the original study (95% CI = [-9.5, 0.3]), the 54% increase in the point estimate is substantial and of practical significance, suggesting underestimation in the prior study. Alternative analysis of different predictors and IPW models, including adjustments for program selection and attrition together, yielded similar results. Findings indicate that high-quality early childhood programs continue to be an important strategy for the prevention of depression and its debilitating effects on individuals and families.

Does early childhood education enhance parental school involvement in second grade?: Evidence from Midwest Child-Parent Center Program.

This paper examines the impact on parent involvement in second grade in the Midwest Child-Parent Centers (MCPC), a high-quality preschool-to-third-grade school reform model. A new focus of research on early childhood programs is understanding how early childhood learning gains can be sustained. Two-generation programs that provide diverse family services may be one approach. The MCPC expansion was implemented for a cohort of over 2000 Chicago and Saint Paul students beginning in preschool. Based on a comparison of the program and usual-service comparison groups matched at the school level via propensity scores, ratings were obtained for a subset of the sample by teachers and parents on parent involvement in school in second grade. After accounting for potential attrition bias via multiple imputation and propensity score weighting, results indicated that MCPC participation was associated with significantly higher parent involvement in school at the end of second grade both in the aggregate sample (Effect Size = 0.19 SD) and in Chicago (ES = 0.24). Differences in Saint Paul, however, were small (ES = 0.15) and not statistically significant. Robustness testing using different model specifications revealed similar results. Implications for assessing and sustaining early childhood learning gains are discussed with a focus on recognizing that parental involvement is an integral component of high-quality programs.

Thirty years later: Locating and interviewing participants of the Chicago Longitudinal Study.

Retaining study participants over time is essential for longitudinal studies to prevent selection bias and to achieve their long-term goals. The present paper examines the extent to which participants can be retained in a 30-year longitudinal study when a multi-pronged approach is employed. The paper specifically describes the approach that was used to locate and interview participants of the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), three decades after the study began. The CLS is a prospective cohort investigation that examines the effects of the Child-Parent Center (CPC) program, a school-based intervention for low-income children from preschool through 3rd grade. The original CLS sample included a complete cohort of 1,539 children who were born in low-income areas in 1979-1980 and attended kindergarten in 1985-1986 at Chicago Public Schools. The CLS conducted a follow-up survey when participants were approximately age 35. After relatively slow initial progress, CLS researchers developed a comprehensive strategy to locate and interview participants, including: (a) adoption of detailed, manualized tracking protocol, (b) utilization of multiple search platforms, ranging from public search engines to social media, (c) assistance from state correctional facilities, and (d) neighborhood canvassing and in-person interviews. This tracking and interview process facilitated 735 completed interviews within 27 months, compared to 370 completed interviews in the 32 months prior to the launch of the comprehensive tracking protocol. Altogether, 1,105 interviews were conducted, representing an effective completion rate of 76.5%. Recommendations for strengthening response rates in other longitudinal studies are discussed.