Using artificial intelligence for exercise prescription in personalised health promotion: A critical evaluation of OpenAI's GPT-4 model.

The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) applications in healthcare provides new possibilities for personalized health management. AI-based fitness applications are becoming more common, facilitating the opportunity for individualised exercise prescription. However, the use of AI carries the risk of inadequate expert supervision, and the efficacy and validity of such applications have not been thoroughly investigated, particularly in the context of diverse health conditions. The aim of the study was to critically assess the efficacy of exercise prescriptions generated by OpenAI's Generative Pre-Trained Transformer 4 (GPT-4) model for five example patient profiles with diverse health conditions and fitness goals. Our focus was to assess the model's ability to generate exercise prescriptions based on a singular, initial interaction, akin to a typical user experience. The evaluation was conducted by leading experts in the field of exercise prescription. Five distinct scenarios were formulated, each representing a hypothetical individual with a specific health condition and fitness objective. Upon receiving details of each individual, the GPT-4 model was tasked with generating a 30-day exercise program. These AI-derived exercise programs were subsequently subjected to a thorough evaluation by experts in exercise prescription. The evaluation encompassed adherence to established principles of frequency, intensity, time, and exercise type; integration of perceived exertion levels; consideration for medication intake and the respective medical condition; and the extent of program individualization tailored to each hypothetical profile. The AI model could create general safety-conscious exercise programs for various scenarios. However, the AI-generated exercise prescriptions lacked precision in addressing individual health conditions and goals, often prioritizing excessive safety over the effectiveness of training. The AI-based approach aimed to ensure patient improvement through gradual increases in training load and intensity, but the model's potential to fine-tune its recommendations through ongoing interaction was not fully satisfying. AI technologies, in their current state, can serve as supplemental tools in exercise prescription, particularly in enhancing accessibility for individuals unable to access, often costly, professional advice. However, AI technologies are not yet recommended as a substitute for personalized, progressive, and health condition-specific prescriptions provided by healthcare and fitness professionals. Further research is needed to explore more interactive use of AI models and integration of real-time physiological feedback.

Mejora de la dureza mental en halteristas universitarios mediante una intervención con biorretroalimentación basada en el modelo IZOF / Melhoria da resistência mental em halterofilistas universitários através de uma intervenção de biofeedback baseada no modelo IZOF / Mental toughness improvement in college weightlifters through an intervention based on the IZOF model

La intervención psicológica en el contexto del deporte ha intentado detectar un modelo que pueda predecir el máximo rendimiento deportivo; los estudios en donde se utilizan programas de intervención psicológica en las fases competitivas han mostrado cierta influencia en la mejora de habilidades psicológicas específicas para la práctica deportiva. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de un programa de control de activación basado en la Zona Individual de Funcionamiento Óptimo (IZOF), sobre los niveles de dureza mental en deportistas universitarios de halterofilia. La muestra constó de tres participantes, seleccionados por conveniencia. Se utilizó un diseño preexperimental de pretest-postest con un grupo único. Se aplicaron el Inventario Psicológico de Ejecución Deportiva y el Inventario de Ansiedad Estado Competitiva-2RD, este último de manera retrospectiva considerando tres momentos deportivos: a) Peor Rendimiento; b) Rendimiento Regular; c) Mejor Rendimiento; y uno de forma prospectiva, d) Post-intervención. Se registro la frecuencia cardiaca como herramienta para determinar la IZOF. El programa de intervención constó de 17 sesiones para la enseñanza y aplicación técnicas de control de activación. Se analizaron las variables psicológicas mediante la prueba T de Wilcoxon y el mínimo cambio apreciable, mientras que se obtuvieron medias para la frecuencia cardiaca para evaluar su comportamiento durante las ejecuciones de rendimiento. Los resultados posteriores a la intervención muestran cambios positivos en los niveles de ansiedad y autoconfianza, así como de las habilidades psicológicas para la práctica deportiva, y, la obtención y mantenimiento de la IZOF en los participantes. (AU)

Psychological intervention in the sports context has tried to detect a model that can predict maximum sports performance. Studies in which psychological intervention programs were used in the competitive phases have shown some influence in the improvement of specific psychological skills for sports practice. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of an activation control program based on the Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) on the mental toughness levels in university weightlifting athletes. The sample was of three participants, selected by convenience. A pre-experimental pretest-posttest design with a single group was used. The Psychological Inventory of Sport Performance and Inventory of Competitive State Anxiety-2RD (CSAI-2R) questionnaires were applied, the CSAI-2R was responded to retrospectively considering three different sporting moments: a)Worst Performance; b) Regular Performance; c) Best Performance; and, one prospectively after intervention: d) Treatment Performance. Heart rate recording was used as a tool to determine the IZOF. The intervention program consisted of 17 sessions for the teaching and application of activation control techniques. Psychological variables were analyzed through a Wilcoxon test and the smallest worthwhile change, whilst heart rate means were obtained to evaluate their behavior throughout the performance executions. Post-intervention results show positive changes in anxiety and self-confidence levels as well as in the psychological skills for sports practice, and the attainment and maintenance of IZOF in the participants. (AU)

A intervenção psicológica no contexto do desporto tentou detectar um modelo que pode prever o máximo desempenho desportivo. Estudos nos quais são utilizados programas de intervenção psicológica nas fases competitivas mostraram uma certa influência na melhoria de competências psicológicas específicas para a prática desportiva. O objectivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito da utilização de um programa de controlo de activação baseado na Zona Ótima de Funcioamento Individual(IZOF) sobre os níveis de resistência mental em atletas de halterofilismo universitários. A amostra consistiu em três participantes, seleccionados de forma não-probabilística por conveniência. Foi utilizado um desenho pré-experimental de pré-teste-pós-teste com um único grupo. Foram aplicados os seguintes questionários: 1) Inventário Psicológico do Desempenho Desportivo; e 2) Inventário da Ansiedade do Estado Competitivo-2RD, este último considerando retrospectivamente três momentos desportivos diferentes: a) pior desempenho; b) desempenho médio; c) melhor desempenho. Finalmente, um registo do ritmo cardíaco como ferramenta para determinar o IZOF. O programa de intervenção consistiu em 17 sessões para o ensino e aplicação de técnicas de controlo de activação. Os dados obtidos foram analisados utilizando um teste Wilcoxon para contrastar as diferenças entre as aplicações CSAI2-RD e IPED. Finalmente, a menor alteração mensurável (SWC) foi utilizada para detectar variações nas pontuações dos testes. Os resultados pós-intervenção mostram um aumento de algumas das capacidades psicológicas para a prática desportiva, e a obtenção e manutenção do IZOF em alguns participantes. (AU)

Comparative Study of the Long-Term Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health and Nutritional Practices Among International Elite and Sub-Elite Athletes: A Sample of 1420 Participants from 14 Countries.

BACKGROUND: Although several studies have shown that the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown has had negative impacts on mental health and eating behaviors among the general population and athletes, few studies have examined the long-term effects on elite and sub-elite athletes. The present study aimed to investigate the long-term impact of COVID-19 lockdown on mental health and eating behaviors in elite versus sub-elite athletes two years into the pandemic. A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted between March and April 2022, involving athletes from 14 countries, using a convenient non-probabilistic and snowball sampling method. A total of 1420 athletes (24.5 ± 7.9 years old, 569 elites, 35% women, and 851 sub-elites, 45% women) completed an online survey-based questionnaire. The questionnaire included a sociodemographic survey, information about the COVID-19 pandemic, the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 Items (DASS-21) for mental health assessment, and the Rapid Eating Assessment for Participants (REAP-S) for assessing eating behavior. RESULTS: The results showed that compared to sub-elite athletes, elite athletes had lower scores on the DASS-21 (p = .001) and its subscales of depression (p = .003), anxiety (p = .007), and stress (p < .001), as well as a lower REAP-S score indicating lower diet quality (p = .013). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, two years into the pandemic, elite athletes were likelier to have better mental health profiles than sub-elite athletes but surprisingly had lower diet quality.

Effects of home confinement on physical activity, nutrition, and sleep quality during the COVID-19 outbreak in amateur and elite athletes.

Introduction: Despite the progress in the management of the pandemic caused by COVID-19, it is necessary to continue exploring and explaining how this situation affected the athlete population around the world to improve their circumstances and reduce the negative impact of changes in their lifestyle conditions that were necessitated due to the pandemic. The aim of this study was to analyze the moderating influence of physical activity (PA) and dietary habits on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic experience on sleep quality in elite and amateur athletes. Materials and methods: A total of 1,420 elite (40.1%) and amateur (59.9%) athletes (41% women; 59% men) from 14 different countries participated in a cross-sectional design study. Data were collected using a battery of questionnaires that identified sociodemographic data, sleep quality index, PA levels, dietary habits, and the athletes' perception of their experience during the COVID-19 pandemic. Means and standard deviations were calculated for each variable. The analysis of variances and the correlation between variables were carried out with non-parametric statistics. A simple moderation effect was calculated to analyze the interaction between PA or dietary habits on the perception of the COVID-19 experience effect on sleep quality in elite and amateur athletes. Results: The PA level of elite athletes was higher than amateur athletes during COVID-19 (p < 0.001). However, the PA level of both categories of athletes was lower during COVID-19 than pre-COVID-19 (p < 0.01). In addition, amateurs had a higher diet quality than elite athletes during the pandemic (p = 0.014). The perception of the COVID-19 experience as controllable was significantly higher (p = 0.020) among elite athletes. In addition, two moderating effects had significant interactions. For amateur athletes, the PA level moderated the effect of controllable COVID-19 experience on sleep quality [F (3,777) = 3.05; p = 0.028], while for elite athletes, the same effect was moderated by dietary habits [F (3,506) = 4.47, p = 0.004]. Conclusion: Elite athletes had different lifestyle behaviors compared to amateurs during the COVID-19 lockdown. Furthermore, the relevance of maintaining high levels of PA for amateurs and good quality dietary habits by elite athletes was noted by the moderating effect that both variables had on the influence of the controllable experience during the COVID-19 pandemic on sleep quality.

Factores que influyen sobre las actitudes hacia la participación de la mujer en el deporte / Factors influencing attitudes towards women's participation in sport

El deporte a través de la influencia de las instituciones educativas favorece la promoción de la equidad de género. El objetivo fue analizar la influencia del género, área de formación académica y práctica deportiva sobre las actitudes hacia la participación de las mujeres en el deporte por parte de la comunidad estudiantil de la Universidad Autónoma de Occidente (UAdeO). Se realizó un estudio transversal con alcance correlacional-explicativo en 3,716 (71.3% mujeres y 28.7% hombres) estudiantes de la UAdeO. Se aplicó la escala sobre la percepción de las actitudes hacia la participación de las mujeres en el deporte (EAPMD). Se realizaron comparaciones en función del género, tipo de práctica deportiva y área de estudios y se calcularon los coeficientes de regresión entre las variables sociodemográficas y la EAPMD. Los resultados muestran que las variables género, práctica deportiva y área de estudios fueron predictores significativos de tres escalas de la EAPMD. Asimismo, se observaron diferencias en los factores de la EAPMD en función de las variables sociodemográficas. Es posible concluir que las actitudes hacia la participación de las mujeres en el deporte de los participantes están influidas por las variables género, práctica deportiva y área de estudios. (AU)

Sport through the influence of educational institutions improve the promotion of gender equity. The aim of the study was to analyze the influence of gender, area of academic formation and sports practice over the attitudes towards women's participation in sports by the student community of the Universidad Autónoma de Occidente (UAdeO). A cross-sectional study with correlational-explanatory scope was realized with 3,716 (71.3% women and 28.7% men) UAdeO students. The scale about the perception of attitudes towards women's participation in sports (AWPS) was applied. Comparisons were made according to gender, type of sport practice and area of study and regression coefficients were calculated between the sociodemographic variables and the AWPS using the method of introducing variables. The results show that the gender, sports practice, and area of study variables were significant predictors of three scales of the AWPS. Likewise, differences were observed in the AWPS factors as a function of sociodemographic variables. It is possible to conclude that the attitudes towards women's participation in sport of the participants are influenced by the variables gender, sport practice and area of studies. (AU)

Competitive Recovery-Stress and Mood States in Mexican Youth Athletes.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring recovery-stress balance in sport is becoming more relevant to prevent training maladaptation and reach the optimal performance for each athlete. The use of questionnaires that identify the athlete's recovery-stress state have much acceptance in sports due to reliability and useful, furthermore for its low cost. Identifying possible differences between sport modalities and sex is important to determine specific needs and possible intervention ways to keep a recovery-stress balance. The aim was to analyze the differences in the recovery-stress state and mood states by sex and sport type during the competitive phase in young Mexican athletes. As a secondary objective, the psychometric properties of the Mexican version of the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) were analyzed. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried on with 461 athletes (61% women and 39% men), 17.95 (±1.2) years old, from six sports disciplines. The RESTQ-Sport and Profile of Mood States (POMS) were applied in a single moment. Differences by sex and sports modality were analyzed. RESTQ-Sport's confirmatory factor analysis was performed after the stress and recovery theoretical structure of two stress (general and sport) and two recovery (general and sport) dimensions, and last, the concurrent validation with the POMS was carried on. RESULTS: Significant differences by sex were found in the General Recovery and Sport Stress dimensions of the RESTQ-Sport as well as Vigor factor of the POMS, being higher for men; furthermore, both the Sport Recovery dimension of RESTQ-Sport and Cholera and the Fatigue and Depression factors from POMS also had differences by sport type, showing a less recovery and high stress for individual sport athletes. Goodness-of-fit indexes of the model for the RESTQ-Sport were acceptable. Pearson's correlation between questionnaires was moderate (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The recovery-stress state shows differences in the function of sex and sport modality. More special attention is suggested for women and individual sport athletes. The higher punctuation for men compared with women in sport stress dimension did not negatively affect the recovery-stress balance for male athletes. Finally, the Mexican context adaptation of the RESTQ-Sport provides a psychometric instrument suitable to assess the recovery-stress balance in Mexican athletes.

Impact of the internal training load over recovery-stress balance in endurance runners / Impacto de la carga de entrenamiento interna sobre el balance de estrés-recuperación en corredores de resistencia

The aim of the research was to analyze the response in the recovery-stress balance perception and the internal training load in resistance runners. 18 trained runners (age: 20.1±2.7 years, weight: 64.2±7.63kg, height, 174.32±6.2cm, VO2max: 57.54±7.34L), participate in tests of 800m (five), 1500m (four), 3000m steeplechase (one), 5000m (five), 10,000m (one) and 21km (two). Three weeks of training monitoring was performed, in which two were of moderate load and one of intense load. The daily S-RPE (Foster et al., 2001) and weekly RESTQ-Sport were applied to evaluate the perception of training load and recovery-stress balance. The Shapiro-Wilk normality test was performed. A variance analysis was applied through the Friedman test, with post hoc Wilcoxon. The Spearman correlation coefficient between the RESTQ-Sport scales and the weekly S-RPE was analyzed. The results indicate that the S-RPE presented significant variations between the weeks, with week three reflecting the greater internal training load perceived. With respect to RESTQ-Sport, only the scale Disturbed Breaks (DB) shown significant differences, being this a specific scale of the sport, reflecting an increase in the perception of stress by the intensity of the training. There were no significant correlations, however, the S-RPE and the Disturbed breaks scale increased in week 3. The results coincide with other previous investigations in which the relationship between the increase in the training loads and the perception of this by the athletes (AU)

El objetivo de la investigación fue analizar la respuesta sobre la percepción del balance estrés-recuperación y la carga interna del entrenamiento en corredores de resistencia. 18 corredores de resistencia entrenados (edad: 20.1±2.7 años, peso: 64.2±7.63kg, estatura, 174.32±6.2cm, VO2max: 57.54±7.34L), participantes en pruebas de 800m (cinco), 1500m (cuatro), 3000m con obstáculos (uno), 5000m (cinco), 10,000m (uno) and 21km (dos). Se monitorearon tres semanas de entrenamiento, dos se realizaron con carga moderada y una con carga intensa. Se utilizó el S-RPE (Foster et al., 2001) diariamente y el RESTQ-Sport semanalmente para evaluar la percepción de estrés-recuperación. Se examinó la normalidad a través de la prueba Shapiro-Wilk y el análisis de varianza a través del test de Friedman con post hoc de Wilcoxon. Se analizó el coeficiente de correlación de Spearman entre las escalas del RESTQ-sport y el S-RPE semanal. El S-RPE tuvo diferencias significativas entre las semanas. La semana 3 presentó la mayor percepción de carga. interna del entrenamiento. El RESTQ-Sport presentó diferencias significativas en la escala de Periodos de Descanso Alterados (PDA), siendo ésta una escala específica del deporte, reflejando un incremento en la percepción de estrés debido a la intensidad del entrenamiento. No se presentaron correlaciones significativas, sin embargo, el S-RPE y la escala PDA muestran un incremento en la semana 3. Los resultados coinciden con estudios previos que señalan una relación entre el incremento de las cargas de entrenamiento y la percepción por parte de los atletas (AU)

Cortisol y estrés-recuperación durante un periodo competitivo en jugadores de balonmano / Cortisol e estresse-recuperação durante um período competitivo em jogadores de handebol / Cortisol and recovery-stress during a competitive period in handball players

El objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar los niveles de cortisol en plasma y su relación con la percepción de los niveles de estrés y recuperación en jugadores de balonmano durante un periodo de entrenamiento y competición. Participaron 14 jugadores de balonmano durante una competición nacional. Se recogieron un total de seis muestras de cortisol y se hicieron cuatro aplicaciones del RESTQ-Sport. Se observó disminución significativa (p < .01) en los niveles de cortisol post-competición (162.22 ± 69.83 ng/mL) en relación a la pre-competición (243.81 ± 36.46 ng/mL). Las sub-escalas de estrés general, estrés emocional, fatiga, recuperación física, calidad de sueño y periodos de descanso alterados del RESTQ-Sport presentaron cambios significativos entre las tomas pre y post-competición. Se encontró una correlación positiva entre los niveles de cortisol y la subescala de éxito (rho = .53; p < .05) y una negativa con la de lesiones (rho = -.57; p < .05). El estudio apoya el concepto de la respuesta anticipatoria del cortisol en relación a la competición. Además, proporciona mayor evidencia de la influencia del entrenamiento y la competición sobre la percepción del estrés-recuperación, resaltando la importancia de un registro psicofisiológico y hormonal con el objetivo de alcanzar un rendimiento deportivo óptimo (AU)

The aim of the study was to analyze plasma cortisol levels and their relation with the perception of recovery-stress balance in handball players during a training and competition period. Fourteen handball players took part in the study during a major competition. Data were collected from six blood samples in order to measure cortisol, and from four applications of the RESTQ-Sport for stress-recovery balance assessment. Compared to pre-competition (243.81 ± 36.46 ng/mL), a significative decrease (p < .01) in cortisol levels was observed in post-competition (162.22 ± 69.83 ng/mL). The RESTQ-Sport subscales general stress, emotional stress, fatigue, physical recovery, sleep quality, and disturbed breaks showed significant changes between pre and post-competition. Cortisol levels were found to have positive correlation with success subscale (rho = .53; p < .05), whilst negative with fitness/injury subscale (rho = -.57; p < .05). Our findings support the idea of an anticipatory cortisol response to competition. Moreover, they provide further evidence on the influence of training over recovery-stress perception, emphasizing the importance of the psychophysiological and hormonal monitoring in order to achieve optimal athletic performance (AU)

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar os níveis de cortisol plasmático e sua relação com a percepção dos níveis de estresse e recuperação em jogadores de handebol durante um treinamento e competição. Participaram 14 jogadores de handebol durante uma competição nacional. Um total de seis amostras de cortisol foram recolhidas e quatro aplicações do RESTQ-Sport foram feitas. Foi observada uma diminuição significativa (p < .01) nos níveis de cortisol pós-competição (162,22 ± 69,83 ng / mL) em relação ao pré-competição (243,81 ± 36,46 ng / mL). As sub-escalas de estresse geral, estresse emocional, fadiga, recuperação física, qualidade do sono e de repouso alterados do RESTQ-Sport mostrou mudanças significativas entre as ingestões pré e pós-competição. Se encontrou uma correlação positiva entre os níveis de cortisol e a sub-escala de sucesso (rho = 0,53; p < .05) e uma correlação negativa com lesão (rho = -.57; p < .05). O estudo apoia o conceito de resposta do cortisol antecipatória em relação à competição. Ele também fornece mais uma prova da influência do treinamento e competição na percepção de estresse-recuperação, destacando a importância de um registo psicofisiológica e hormonal a fim de alcançar o desempenho atlético ideal (AU)