Review of Classification Systems for Adult Acquired Flatfoot Deformity/Progressive Collapsing Foot Deformity and the Novel Development of the Triple Classification Delinking Instability/Deformity/Reactivity and Foot Type.

Background: Classifications of AAFD/PCFD have evolved with an increased understanding of the pathology involved. A review of classification systems helps identify deficiencies and respective contributions to the evolution in understanding the classification of AAFD/PCFD. Methods: Using multiple electronic database searches (Medline, PubMed) and Google search, original papers classifying AAFD/PCFD were identified. Nine original papers were identified that met the inclusion criteria. Results: Johnson's original classification and multiple variants provided a significant leap in understanding and communicating the pathology but remained tibialis posterior tendon-focused. Drawbacks of these classifications include the implication of causality, linearity of progression through stages, an oversimplification of stage 2 deformity, and a failure to understand that multiple tendons react, not just tibialis posterior. Later classifications, such as the PCFD classification, are deformity-centric. Early ligament laxity/instability in normal attitude feet and all stages of cavus feet can present with pain and instability with minor/no deformity. These may not be captured in deformity-based classifications. The authors developed the 'Triple Classification' (TC) understanding that primary pathology is a progressive ligament failure/laxity that presents as tendon reactivity, deformity, and painful impingement, variably manifested depending on starting foot morphology. In this classification, starting foot morphology is typed, ligament laxities are staged, and deformity is zoned. Conclusions: This review has used identified deficiencies within classification systems for AAFD/PCFD to delink ligament laxity, deformity, and foot type and develop the 'Triple classification'. Advantages of the TC may include representing foot types with no deformity, defining complex secondary instabilities, delinking foot types, tendon reactivity/ligament instability, and deformity to represent these independently in a new classification system. Level of Evidence: Level V.

Friction Blisters of the Feet: A Critical Assessment of Current Prevention Strategies.

Friction blisters are a common injury of the feet sustained by individuals participating in sporting, recreational, and military activities. The high incidence of friction blisters brings into question the effectiveness of common prevention strategies. The purpose of this article was to review current evidence for established blister-prevention strategies and to explore how these interventions address the factors that cause friction blisters. Preventive strategies, focusing on previously overlooked elements of the blister-causing mechanism, are proposed. Areas of future research that are much needed to reduce this common skin injury in active individuals are outlined.

Friction Blisters of the Feet: A New Paradigm to Explain Causation.

Friction blisters on the feet commonly occur when individuals engage in active pursuits such as running, hiking, and military training. The high prevalence of blisters in active individuals underscores the fact that the pathomechanics of this condition are not fully understood. The traditional blister causation paradigm revolves around heat, moisture, and friction. In reality, foot friction blisters are caused by repetitive shear deformation. The 3 fundamental elements of blister-inducing shear deformation are (1) motion of bone, (2) high friction force, and (3) repetition of the resulting shear events. Rubbing at the skin surface is not a mechanism for friction blister formation. To that end, prevention of the friction blister continues to be an elusive quest for both the patient and the treating clinician. In this article, we aimed to highlight the limitations of the long-held blister-causation paradigm and offer a new explanation.

Injuries to the Spring Ligament: Nonoperative Treatment.

The fibrocartilage within the superomedial calcaneonavicular (spring) ligament is part of an interwoven complex of ligaments that span the ankle, subtalar, and talonavicular joints. Acute isolated rupture of the spring ligament has been reported in association with an eversion ankle sprain. Attenuation and failure of the spring ligament causes complex 3D changes called the progressive collapsing foot deformity (PCFD). This deformity is characterized by hindfoot eversion, forefoot supination, collapse of the medial longitudinal arch, and forefoot abduction. Nonoperative treatment of an isolated spring ligament rupture and PCFD using various designs of orthoses have shown promising results.

Biomechanics and Orthotic Treatment of the Adult Acquired Flatfoot.

The adult acquired flatfoot deformity resulting from posterior tibial tendon dysfunction is the result of rupture of the posterior tibial tendon as well as key ligaments of the ankle and hindfoot. Kinematic studies have verified certain levels of deformity causing hindfoot eversion, lowering of the medial longitudinal arch and forefoot abduction. The condition is progressive and left untreated will cause significant disability. Bracing with ankle-foot orthoses has shown promising results in arresting progression of deformity and avoiding debilitating surgery. Various types of ankle-foot orthoses have been studied in terms of effects on gait as well as efficacy in treatment.

Return to play after an ankle sprain: guidelines for the podiatric physician.

The ankle sprain is the most common injury in sport and has a high incidence of long-term disability. This disability may be partly due to early return to sport before ligament healing has been completed. The podiatric physician can follow sound guidelines for making a return-to-play decision for athletes suffering from an ankle sprain. The decision-making process requires the podiatric physician to monitor the rehabilitation process and then administer patient self-reported questionnaires as well as functional performance tests to assess the status of ankle function after injury.

Exertional compartment syndrome of the medial foot compartment--diagnosis and treatment: a case report.

Exertional compartment syndrome in the foot is rarely reported and often confused with plantar fasciitis as a cause of arch pain in the running athlete. We describe a case involving a 19-year-old competitive collegiate runner who developed a chronic case of bilateral medial arch pain during training, which was initially diagnosed as plantar fasciitis but failed to respond to conventional treatment. After symptoms began to suggest exertional compartment syndrome, the diagnosis was confirmed by measuring an elevated resting pressure in the medial compartment of both feet. The patient underwent a bilateral medial compartment fasciotomy, which allowed a full return to activity, and has remained pain free after a 1-year follow-up.

Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the Medial Foot Compartment: Diagnosis and Treatment.

Exertional compartment syndrome (ECS) in the foot is rarely reported and often confused with plantar fasciitis as a cause of arch pain in the running athlete. We describe a case involving a 19 year old competitive collegiate runner who developed a chronic case of bilateral medial arch pain during training, which was initially diagnosed as plantar fasciitis but failed to respond to conventional treatment. After symptoms began to suggest exertional compartment syndrome, the diagnosis was confirmed by measuring an elevated resting pressure in the medial compartment of both feet. The patient underwent a bilateral medial compartment fasciotomy, which allowed a full return to activity, and has remained pain free after a one year follow up.

A prospective, randomized, double-blinded study with crossover to determine the efficacy of radio-frequency nerve ablation for the treatment of heel pain.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have demonstrated that radio-frequency nerve ablation (RFNA) can be an effective treatment for plantar fasciosis. This study provides additional evidence in support of this treatment, with statistically significant data that demonstrate the success of this technique. METHODS: In this multicenter, randomized, prospective, double-blinded study with crossover, 17 patients were divided into two groups, with eight initially receiving RFNA treatment and nine initially receiving sham treatment. If no improvement was observed after 4 weeks, a crossover was offered. Results of the treatment were evaluated by the patient and by a blinded physician using a visual analog pain scale to rate first-step pain, average pain, and peak pain in the heel region. RESULTS: We observed a statistically significant improvement in the symptoms of plantar fasciosis in patients actively treated with RFNA and no significant improvement in the sham-treated group. More important, those treated with sham subsequently demonstrated statistically significant improvement after subsequent RFNA treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Using a prospective, randomized study with sham treatment and crossover, this study demonstrates the efficacy of RFNA for the treatment of plantar fasciosis.

Biomechanics and clinical analysis of the adult acquired flatfoot.

The adult acquired flatfoot is a deformity that results from the loss of dynamic and static supportive structures of the medial longitudinal arch. The severity of the deformity is dependent upon the role of ligamentous disruption on the hindfoot that can be determined by careful clinical examination. Treatment of the adult flatfoot requires an understanding of the biomechanical effects of deforming forces, tendon dysfunction, ligament disruption, and joint sublaxation.

Effects of foot orthoses on patients with chronic ankle instability.

Chronic instability of the ankle can be the result of mechanical and functional deficits. An acute ankle sprain can cause mechanical and functional instability, which may or may not respond to standard rehabilitation programs. Chronic instability results when there is persistent joint laxity of the ankle or when one or more components of neuromuscular control of the ankle are compromised. A loss of balance or postural control seems to be the most consistent finding among athletes with chronic instability of the ankle. Recent research in patients with acute and chronic ankle instability has revealed positive effects of foot orthoses on postural control. This article reviews the current research relevant to the use of foot orthoses in patients with chronic ankle instability and clarifies the suggested benefits and the shortcomings of these investigations.