Effect of General Surgery Resident Participation in Thoracic Surgery on Oncologic Outcomes: An Observational Cohort Study.

Background: Despite increasing sub-specialization, general surgeons continue to perform oncologic thoracic surgeries. Our objective was to determine whether general surgery resident participation in thoracic surgery affects surgical quality or oncologic outcomes. We hypothesized that patient outcomes with and without resident participation would be similar. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the electronic health records of patients with stage 0-IV lung cancer undergoing oncologic pulmonary resection at BLINDED FOR REVIEW during an 11-year period (2012-2022). Patients younger than 18 years or older than 85 years were excluded, as were those who had incomplete follow-up data or were unregistered in our institutional cancer registry. Patients were divided into groups based on whether residents or staff surgeons completed >50% of the critical portions of the operation. We compared 30-day morbidity outcomes, overall survival (OS), and disease-free survival (DFS). Results: Three hundred thirteen patients met inclusion criteria. Demographic and clinical characteristics were similar between groups, as were types of surgical resection and median operative times. A statistical difference was found in the distribution of surgical approach. The odds of morbidity were 65% higher in the Staff group (OR=1.65; 95% CI, 1.007-2.71). Resident participation was not significantly associated with OS or DFS (P =.32 and P =.54, respectively). Discussion: General surgery resident involvement in lung cancer operations is not associated with longer operative times but is associated with a higher likelihood of a thoracotomy. General surgery resident involvement was associated with decreased postoperative morbidity and did not significantly affect OS or DFS.

Discovery of Borosin Catalytic Strategies and Function through Bioinformatic Profiling.

Borosins are ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) containing backbone α-N-methylations. These modifications confer favorable pharmacokinetic properties including increased membrane permeability and resistance to proteolytic degradation. Previous studies have biochemically and bioinformatically explored several borosins, revealing (1) numerous domain architectures and (2) diverse core regions lacking conserved sequence elements. Due to these characteristics, large-scale computational identification of borosin biosynthetic genes remains challenging and often requires additional, time-intensive manual inspection. This work builds upon previous findings and updates the genome-mining tool RODEO to automatically evaluate borosin biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) and identify putative precursor peptides. Using the new RODEO module, we provide an updated analysis of borosin BGCs identified in the NCBI database. From our data set, we bioinformatically predict and experimentally characterize a new fused borosin domain architecture, in which the modified natural product core is encoded N-terminal to the methyltransferase domain. Additionally, we demonstrate that a borosin precursor peptide is a native substrate of shewasin A, a reported aspartyl peptidase with no previously identified substrates. Shewasin A requires post-translational modification of the leader peptide for proteolytic maturation, a feature not previously observed in RiPPs. Overall, this work provides a user-friendly and open-access tool for the analysis of borosin BGCs and we demonstrate its utility to uncover additional biosynthetic strategies within the borosin class of RiPPs.

Alterations in Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity and Lateral Ventricle Differ in Rats Exposed to Space Radiation and Social Isolation.

The proposed Mars missions will expose astronauts to long durations of social isolation (SI) and space radiation (SR). These stressors have been shown to alter the brain's macrostructure and microenvironment, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Breakdown of the BBB is linked to impaired executive functions and physical deficits, including sensorimotor and neurocognitive impairments. However, the precise mechanisms mediating these effects remain unknown. Additionally, the synergistic effects of combined exposure to SI and SR on the structural integrity of the BBB and brain remain unknown. We assessed the BBB integrity and morphology in the brains of male rats exposed to ground-based analogs of SI and SR. The rats exposed to SR had enlarged lateral ventricles and increased BBB damage associated with a loss of astrocytes and an increased number of leaky vessels. Many deficits observed in SR-treated animals were attenuated by dual exposure to SI (DFS). SI alone did not show BBB damage but did show differences in astrocyte morphology compared to the Controls. Thus, determining how single and combined inflight stressors modulate CNS structural integrity is crucial to fully understand the multiple pathways that could impact astronaut performance and health, including the alterations to the CNS structures and cell viability observed in this study.

An enhanced IL17 and muted type I interferon nasal epithelial cell state characterizes severe COVID-19 with fungal coinfection.

Recent case reports and epidemiological data suggest that fungal infections represent an underappreciated complication among people with severe COVID-19. However, the frequency of fungal colonization in patients with COVID-19 and associations with specific immune responses in the airways remain incompletely defined. We previously generated a single-cell RNA-sequencing data set characterizing the upper respiratory microenvironment during COVID-19 and mapped the relationship between disease severity and the local behavior of nasal epithelial cells and infiltrating immune cells. Our previous study, in agreement with findings from related human cohorts, demonstrated that a profound deficiency in host immunity, particularly in type I and type III interferon signaling in the upper respiratory tract, is associated with rapid progression to severe disease and worse clinical outcomes. We have now performed further analysis of this cohort and identified a subset of participants with severe COVID-19 and concurrent detection of Candida species-derived transcripts within samples collected from the nasopharynx and trachea. Here, we present the clinical characteristics of these individuals. Using matched single-cell transcriptomic profiles of these individuals' respiratory mucosa, we identify epithelial immune signatures suggestive of IL17 stimulation and anti-fungal immunity. Further, we observe a significant expression of anti-fungal inflammatory cascades in the nasal and tracheal epithelium of all participants who went on to develop severe COVID-19, even among participants without detectable genetic material from fungal pathogens. Together, our data suggest that IL17 stimulation-in part driven by Candida colonization-and blunted interferon signaling represent a common feature of severe COVID-19 infection. IMPORTANCE: In this paper, we present an analysis suggesting that symptomatic and asymptomatic fungal coinfections can impact patient disease progression during COVID-19 hospitalization. By looking into the presence of other pathogens and their effect on the host immune response during COVID-19 hospitalizations, we aim to offer insight into an underestimated scenario, furthering our current knowledge of determinants of severity that could be considered for future diagnostic and intervention strategies.

Computationally guided exploration of borosin biosynthetic strategies.

Borosins are ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides containing backbone α- N -methylations. Identification of borosin precursor peptides is difficult because (1) there are no conserved sequence elements among borosin precursor peptides and (2) the biosynthetic gene clusters contain numerous domain architectures and peptide fusions. To tackle this problem, we updated the genome mining tool RODEO to automatically evaluate putative borosin BGCs and identify precursor peptides. Enabled by the new borosin module, we analyzed all borosin BGCs found in available sequence data and assigned precursor peptides to previously orphan borosin methyltransferases. Additionally, we bioinformatically predict and experimentally characterize a new fused borosin domain architecture, in which the modified core is N-terminal to the methyltransferase domain. Finally, we demonstrate that a borosin precursor peptide is the native substrate of shewasin A, a previously characterized pepsin-like aspartic peptidase whose native biological function was unknown.

Epidemiological impact of a large number of false negative SARS-CoV-2 test results in South West England during September and October 2021.

During September and October 2021, a substantial number of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) tests in England processed at a single laboratory were incorrectly reported as negative. We estimate the number of false negative test results issued and investigate the epidemiological impact of this incident. We estimate the number of COVID-19 cases that would have been reported had the sensitivity of the laboratory test procedure not dropped for the period 2 September to 12 October. In addition, by making comparisons between the most affected local areas and comparator populations, we estimate the number of additional infections, cases, hospitalisations and deaths that could have occurred as a result of increased transmission due to false negative test results.We estimate that around 39,000 tests may have been false negatives during this period and, as a direct result of this incident, the most affected areas in the South-West of England could have experienced between 6000 and 34,000 additional reportable cases, with a central estimate of around 24,000 additional reportable cases. Using modelled relationships between key variables, we estimate that this central estimate could have translated to approximately 55,000 additional infections.Each false negative likely led to around 1.5 additional infections. The incident is likely to have had a measurable impact on cases and infections in the affected areas in the South-West of England. IMPACT STATEMENT: These results indicate the significant negative impact of incorrect testing on COVID outcomes; and make a substantial contribution to understanding the impact of testing systems and the need to ensure high accuracy in testing and reporting of results.

Survival at older ages: are greater influenza antibody titers protective?

Antibodies are a core element of the immune system's defense against infectious diseases. We hypothesize that antibody titres might therefore be an important predictor of survival in older individuals. This is important because biomarkers that robustly measure survival have proved elusive, despite their potential utility in health care settings. We present evidence supporting the hypothesis that influenza antibody titres are associated with overall survival of older individuals, and indicate a role for biological sex in modulating this association. Since antibody titres can be modulated by vaccination, these results have important implications for public health policy on influenza control in aging populations.

Team science: A syllabus for success on big projects.

Interdisciplinary teams are on the rise as scientists attempt to address complex environmental issues. While the benefits of team science approaches are clear, researchers often struggle with its implementation, particularly for new team members. The challenges of large projects often weigh on the most vulnerable members of a team: trainees, including undergraduate students, graduate students, and post-doctoral researchers. Trainees on big projects have to navigate their role on the team, with learning project policies, procedures, and goals, all while also training in key scientific tasks such as co-authoring papers. To address these challenges, we created and participated in a project-specific, graduate-level team science course. The purposes of this course were to: (1) introduce students to the goals of the project, (2) build trainees' understanding of how big projects operate, and (3) allow trainees to explore how their research interests dovetailed with the overall project. Additionally, trainees received training regarding: (1) diversity, equity & inclusion, (2) giving and receiving feedback, and (3) effective communication. Onboarding through the team science course cultivated psychological safety and a collaborative student community across disciplines and institutions. Thus, we recommend a team science course for onboarding students to big projects to help students establish the skills necessary for collaborative research. Project-based team science classes can benefit student advancement, enhance the productivity of the project, and accelerate the discovery of solutions to ecological issues by building community, establishing a shared project vocabulary, and building a workforce with collaborative skills to better answer ecological research questions.

Adolescent Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptive Use, Same-Day Insertions, and Pregnancies Following a Quality Initiative.

OBJECTIVE: To compare long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) use, pregnancy rate, and same-day LARC insertion among adolescents before and after a Kaiser Permanente Northern California quality initiative. METHODS: A 2016 Kaiser Permanente Northern California initiative aimed to increase adolescent LARC access. Interventions included patient education resources, electronic protocols, and insertion training for pediatric, family medicine, and gynecology providers. This study examined a retrospective cohort of adolescents aged 15-18 years who used contraception before (2014-2015, n = 30,094) and after (2017-2018, n = 28,710) implementation. Contraceptive types included LARC (intrauterine device or implant), injectable, and contraceptive pill, patch, or ring. We reviewed a random sample of LARC users (n = 726) to identify same-day insertions. Multivariable analysis examined the effects of year of provision, age, race, ethnicity, LARC type, and counseling clinic. RESULTS: Preintervention, 12.1% of adolescents used LARC, 13.6% used injectable, and 74.3% used pill, patch, or ring. Postintervention, the proportions were 23.0%, 11.6%, and 65.4%, respectively, with the odds of LARC provision of 2.57 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.44-2.72). The pregnancy rate decreased from 2.2% to 1.4% (p < .0001). Higher rates of pregnancy were observed with injectable contraception and in Black and Hispanic adolescents. Same-day LARC insertion rate was 25.1% without significant variation post intervention (OR 1.44, 95% confidence interval 0.93-2.23). Contraceptive counseling in gynecology clinics increased the odds of same-day provision, while non-Hispanic Black race lowered odds. DISCUSSION: A multifaceted quality intervention was associated with a 90% increase in LARC use and a 36% decrease in teenage pregnancy rate. Future directions may include promoting same-day insertions, targeting interventions in pediatric clinics, and focusing on racial equity.

Developmental strategies underlying gigantism and miniaturization in non-avialan theropod dinosaurs.

In amniotes, the predominant developmental strategy underlying body size evolution is thought to be adjustments to the rate of growth rather than its duration. However, most theoretical and experimental studies supporting this axiom focus on pairwise comparisons and/or lack an explicit phylogenetic framework. We present the first large-scale phylogenetic comparative analysis examining developmental strategies underlying the evolution of body size, focusing on non-avialan theropod dinosaurs. We reconstruct ancestral states of growth rate and body mass in a taxonomically rich dataset, finding that contrary to expectations, changes in the rate and duration of growth played nearly equal roles in the evolution of the vast body size disparity present in non-avialan theropods-and perhaps that of amniotes in general.

Profiling Transcriptional Heterogeneity with Seq-Well S3: A Low-Cost, Portable, High-Fidelity Platform for Massively Parallel Single-Cell RNA-Seq.

Seq-Well is a high-throughput, picowell-based single-cell RNA-seq technology that can be used to simultaneously profile the transcriptomes of thousands of cells (Gierahn et al. Nat Methods 14(4):395-398, 2017). Relative to its reverse-emulsion-droplet-based counterparts, Seq-Well addresses key cost, portability, and scalability limitations. Recently, we introduced an improved molecular biology for Seq-Well to enhance the information content that can be captured from individual cells using the platform. This update, which we call Seq-Well S3 (S3: Second-Strand Synthesis), incorporates a second-strand-synthesis step after reverse transcription to boost the detection of cellular transcripts normally missed when running the original Seq-Well protocol (Hughes et al. Immunity 53(4):878-894.e7, 2020). This chapter provides details and tips on how to perform Seq-Well S3, along with general pointers on how to subsequently analyze the resultant single-cell RNA-seq data.

Severe COVID-19 is associated with fungal colonization of the nasopharynx and potent induction of IL-17 responses in the nasal epithelium.

Recent case reports and epidemiological data suggest fungal infections represent an under-appreciated complication among people with severe COVID-19. However, the frequency of fungal colonization in patients with COVID-19 and associations with specific immune responses in the airways remain incompletely defined. We previously generated a single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) dataset characterizing the upper respiratory microenvironment during COVID-19, and mapped the relationship between disease severity and the local behavior of nasal epithelial cells and infiltrating immune cells. Our study, in agreement with findings from related human cohorts, demonstrated that a profound deficiency in host immunity, particularly in type I and type III interferon signaling in the upper respiratory tract, is associated with rapid progression to severe disease and worse clinical outcomes. We have now performed further analysis of this cohort and identified a subset of participants with severe COVID-19 and concurrent detection of Candida species-derived transcripts within samples collected from the nasopharynx and trachea. Here, we present the clinical characteristics of these individuals, including confirmatory diagnostic testing demonstrating elevated serum (1, 3)-ß-D-glucan and/or confirmed fungal culture of the predicted pathogen. Using matched single-cell transcriptomic profiles of these individuals' respiratory mucosa, we identify epithelial immune signatures suggestive of IL-17 stimulation and anti-fungal immunity. Further, we observe significant expression of anti-fungal inflammatory cascades in the nasal and tracheal epithelium of all participants who went on to develop severe COVID-19, even among participants without detectable genetic material from fungal pathogens. Together, our data suggests that IL-17 stimulation - in part driven by Candida colonization - and blunted type I/III interferon signaling represents a common feature of severe COVID-19 infection.

Severe COVID-19 is associated with fungal colonization of the nasopharynx and potent induction of IL-17 responses in the nasal epithelium

Recent case reports and epidemiological data suggest fungal infections represent an under-appreciated complication among people with severe COVID-19. However, the frequency of fungal colonization in patients with COVID-19 and associations with specific immune responses in the airways remain incompletely defined. We previously generated a single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) dataset characterizing the upper respiratory microenvironment during COVID-19, and mapped the relationship between disease severity and the local behavior of nasal epithelial cells and infiltrating immune cells. Our study, in agreement with findings from related human cohorts, demonstrated that a profound deficiency in host immunity, particularly in type I and type III interferon signaling in the upper respiratory tract, is associated with rapid progression to severe disease and worse clinical outcomes. We have now performed further analysis of this cohort and identified a subset of participants with severe COVID-19 and concurrent detection of Candida species-derived transcripts within samples collected from the nasopharynx and trachea. Here, we present the clinical characteristics of these individuals, including confirmatory diagnostic testing demonstrating elevated serum (1, 3)-{beta}-D-glucan and/or confirmed fungal culture of the predicted pathogen. Using matched single-cell transcriptomic profiles of these individuals respiratory mucosa, we identify epithelial immune signatures suggestive of IL-17 stimulation and anti-fungal immunity. Further, we observe significant expression of anti-fungal inflammatory cascades in the nasal and tracheal epithelium of all participants who went on to develop severe COVID-19, even among participants without detectable genetic material from fungal pathogens. Together, our data suggests that IL-17 stimulation - in part driven by Candida colonization - and blunted type I/III interferon signaling represents a common feature of severe COVID-19 infection.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATP Synthase Inhibitors.

New antibiotics with unique biological targets are desperately needed to combat the growing number of resistant bacterial pathogens. ATP synthase, a critical protein found in all life, has recently become a target of interest for antibiotic development due to the success of the anti-tuberculosis drug bedaquiline, and while many groups have worked on developing drugs to target bacterial ATP synthase, few have been successful at inhibiting Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) ATP synthase specifically. PA is one of the leading causes of resistant nosocomial infections across the world and is extremely challenging to treat due to its various antibiotic resistance mechanisms for most commonly used antibiotics. Herein, we detail the synthesis and evaluation of a series of C1/C2 quinoline analogues for their ability to inhibit PA ATP synthase and act as antibiotics against wild-type PA. From this survey, we found six compounds capable of inhibiting PA ATP synthase in vitro showing that bulky/hydrophobic C1/C2 substitutions are preferred. The strongest inhibitor showed an IC50 of 10 µg/mL and decreased activity of PA ATP synthase to 24% relative to the control. While none of the compounds were able to inhibit wild-type PA in cell culture, two showed improved inhibition of PA growth when permeability of the outer membrane was increased or efflux was knocked out, thus demonstrating that these compounds could be further developed into efficacious antibiotics.

Single-cell transcriptomics of staged oocytes and somatic cells reveal novel regulators of follicle activation.

In brief: Proper development of ovarian follicles, comprised of an oocyte and surrounding somatic cells, is essential to support female fertility and endocrine health. Here, we describe a method to isolate single oocytes and somatic cells from the earliest stage follicles, called primordial follicles, and we characterize signals that drive their activation. Abstract: Primordial follicles are the first class of follicles formed in the mammalian ovary and are comprised of an oocyte surrounded by a layer of squamous pre-granulosa cells. This developmental class remains in a non-growing state until individual follicles activate to initiate folliculogenesis. What regulates the timing of follicle activation and the upstream signals that govern these processes are major unanswered questions in ovarian biology. This is partly due to the paucity of data on staged follicle cells since isolating and manipulating individual oocytes and somatic cells from early follicle stages are challenging. To date, most studies on isolated primordial follicles have been conducted on cells collected from animal-age- or oocyte size-specific samples, which encompass multiple follicular stages. Here, we report a method for collecting primordial follicles and their associated oocytes and somatic cells from neonatal murine ovaries using liberase, DNase I, and Accutase. This methodology allows for the identification and collection of follicles immediately post-activation enabling unprecedented interrogation of the primordial-to-primary follicle transition. Molecular profiling by single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that processes including organelle disassembly and cadherin binding were enriched in oocytes and somatic cells as they transitioned from primordial to the primary follicle stage. Furthermore, targets including WNT4, TGFB1, FOXO3, and a network of transcription factors were identified in the transitioning oocytes and somatic cells as potential upstream regulators that collectively may drive follicle activation. Taken together, we have developed a more precise characterization and selection method for studying staged-follicle cells, revealing several novel regulators of early folliculogenesis.

Cellular and transcriptional diversity over the course of human lactation.

Human breast milk (hBM) is a dynamic fluid that contains millions of cells, but their identities and phenotypic properties are poorly understood. We generated and analyzed single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) data to characterize the transcriptomes of cells from hBM across lactational time from 3 to 632 d postpartum in 15 donors. We found that the majority of cells in hBM are lactocytes, a specialized epithelial subset, and that cell-type frequencies shift over the course of lactation, yielding greater epithelial diversity at later points. Analysis of lactocytes reveals a continuum of cell states characterized by transcriptional changes in hormone-, growth factor-, and milk production-related pathways. Generalized additive models suggest that one subcluster, LC1 epithelial cells, increases as a function of time postpartum, daycare attendance, and the use of hormonal birth control. We identify several subclusters of macrophages in hBM that are enriched for tolerogenic functions, possibly playing a role in protecting the mammary gland during lactation. Our description of the cellular components of breast milk, their association with maternal­infant dyad metadata, and our quantification of alterations at the gene and pathway levels provide a detailed longitudinal picture of hBM cells across lactational time. This work paves the way for future investigations of how a potential division of cellular labor and differential hormone regulation might be leveraged therapeutically to support healthy lactation and potentially aid in milk production.

Hemodilution in high-risk cardiac surgery: Laboratory values, physiological parameters, and outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) is a blood conservation strategy in cardiac surgery, predominantly used in coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) and/or valve procedures. Although higher complexity cardiac procedures may benefit from ANH, concerns for hemodynamic instability, and organ injury during hemodilution hinder its wider acceptance. Laboratory and physiological parameters during hemodilution in complex cardiac surgeries have not been described. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: This observational cohort (2019-2021) study included 169 patients who underwent thoracic aortic repair, multiple valve procedure, concomitant CABG with the aforementioned procedure, and/or redo sternotomies. Patients who received allogeneic blood were excluded. Statistical comparisons were performed between ANH (N = 66) and non-ANH controls (N = 103). ANH consisted of removal of blood at the beginning of surgery and its return after cardiopulmonary bypass. RESULTS: Intraoperatively, the ANH group received more albumin (p = .04) and vasopressor medications (p = .01), while urine output was no different between ANH and controls. Bilateral cerebral oximetry (rSO2 ) values were similar before and after hemodilution. During bypass, rSO2 were discretely lower in the ANH versus control group (right rSO2 p = .03, left rSO2 p = .05). No differences in lactic acid values were detected across the procedural continuum. Postoperatively, no differences in extubation times, intensive care unit length of stay, kidney injury, stroke, or infection were demonstrated. DISCUSSION: This study suggests hemodilution to be a safe and comparable blood conservation technique, even without accounting for potential benefits of reduced allogenic blood administration. The study may contribute to better understanding and wider acceptance of ANH protocols in high-risk cardiac surgeries.

Optimizing Spinosyn Insecticide Applications for Allium Leafminer (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Management in Allium Crops.

Allium leafminer, Phytomyza gymnostoma Loew (Diptera: Agromyzidae), is an invasive pest of allium crops in North America. Spinosyn insecticides, spinetoram and spinosad, have been effective choices for managing P. gymnostoma infestations in allium crops, but their use should be optimized for economical and resistance management purposes. In New York from 2018 through 2020, performance of each spinosyn insecticide was evaluated by making two applications spaced either 1 or 2 wk apart beginning at various intervals after P. gymnostoma was first detected in the field; a weekly spray program also was included. Results indicated that weekly applications of each spinosyn insecticide provided ≥98% reduction of P. gymnostoma densities in scallions and leeks relative to the untreated control. Spinetoram applied twice, regardless of initial timing and duration between sprays, provided an acceptable level of P. gynostoma control (71 to 98% reduction in densities relative to the untreated control). Spinosad also was effective when applied twice (85 to 95% reduction in densities relative to the untreated control), but not when sprays were made consecutively beginning when P. gymnostoma was first detected and not when the P. gymnostoma infestation was extremely high (i.e., 38 insects per plant in the untreated control). Management of P. gymnostoma with spinosyns can be successful with only two applications, but control tended to be best when first applied 2 to 3 wk after initial detection. Optimizing applications of spinetoram and spinosad will save growers time, reduce insecticide costs, and mitigate resistance development without significantly increasing the risk of yield reduction.

Lack of Enteral Feeding Associated with Mortality in Prematurity and Necrotizing Enterocolitis.

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC) remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Recently, there has been an increased recognition of the importance of intestinal immunity and the associations with antibiotics and enteral feeds in the pathophysiology of NEC. The primary purpose of this study is to examine the association of enteral feeds on the survival of premature neonates with NEC. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A retrospective review using the Vermont Oxford Network for a Level IV NICU from January 1, 2013 through December 31, 2019 was performed. All neonates had a gestational age between 22 to 29 weeks, weighed at least 300 grams (n = 653), had a reported enteral feed status and were treated for NEC (n = 43). Data analysis utilized two-tailed t-tests for NEC and infection rates then Fisher's exact tests for survival status. RESULTS: The incidence of NEC in the population was 6.6% (43/653). Of the 43 neonates treated for NEC, 27 were enterally fed, while the other 16 were not. All 27 neonates with NEC that were able to achieve enteral feeds survived and had an infection rate of 22.2%. Meanwhile, all 16 neonates with NEC that were unable to achieve enteral feeds died and had an infection rate of 62.5%. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant association between enteral feeds and NEC, survival, and infection rates in premature neonates. These findings support the importance of intestinal immunity and the microbiota in NEC. Given the limitations of the retrospective review, the profound survival advantage with enteral feeds reinforces the need for further study.