SELECTED INSTANCES OF ELEPHANT ENDOTHELIOTROPIC HERPESVIRUS SHEDDING IN TRUNK SECRETIONS BY AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (LOXODONTA AFRICANA) IN COMPARISON TO SHEDDING BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

This study examined the viral shedding kinetics of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) compared to viral shedding behavior in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Little is known about the transmission dynamics and epidemiology of this disease in African elephants. In light of recent clinical cases and mortalities, this paper aims to identify trends in viral biology. Trunk wash samples were collected from 22 African elephants from four North American zoological institutions that had recently experienced herd viremias or translocations. Processing of these samples included DNA extraction followed by qPCR to quantitate viral DNA load. The results were then compared with available literature that chronicled similar cases in Asian and African elephants. Minimal EEHV shedding was detected in response to varied herd translocations. Increased shedding was recorded in herds in which an elephant experienced an EEHV viremia when compared to baseline shedding. These index infections were followed by subsequent viremias in other elephants, although it is not known if these were recrudescence, transient controlled viremias, and/or primary infections via transmission to other elephants. When compared to historically published data, it was observed that EEHV3 cases in African elephants and EEHV1A cases in Asian elephants had consistently higher levels of viral DNA in the blood than were shed in trunk secretions, a fact that is seemingly inconsistent with such severe cases of disease and the high mortality rates associated with those respective types. The findings produced in this study highlight the need for more routine monitoring of viral shedding in African elephant herds to elucidate possible EEHV transmission and recrudescence factors for ex situ population management.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis Infection in Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus), Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2019-2022.

Rat lungworm (Angiostrongylus cantonensis), a zoonotic parasite invasive to the United States, causes eosinophilic meningoencephalitis. A. cantonensis harbors in rat reservoir hosts and is transmitted through gastropods and other paratenic hosts. We discuss the public health relevance of autochthonous A. cantonensis cases in brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) in Atlanta, Georgia, USA.

MANAGEMENT OF ATRIAL FIBRILLATION, VENTRICULAR ARRHYTHMIA, LEFT VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION, AND SUBSEQUENT CARDIOPATHOLOGIC EVALUATION IN AN ORANGUTAN (PONGO PYGMAEUS × ABELII).

A 37-yr-old male vasectomized hybrid orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus × abelii) was diagnosed with left ventricular dysfunction during a preventative health care examination. Treatment was initiated with carvedilol. The following year, this orangutan was evaluated for intermittent lethargy. Following observation of an irregular cardiac rhythm during an echocardiogram, a lead II electrocardiogram revealed atrial fibrillation and ventricular arrhythmia. Additional treatment included amiodarone, furosemide, spironolactone, clopidogrel, and aspirin. An improved activity level was noted, and follow-up testing showed restoration of a sinus rhythm, reduced frequency of ventricular arrhythmia, and improved left ventricular function. The orangutan died 27 mon after initial diagnosis of heart disease, and a complete necropsy was performed. This article describes successful diagnosis and management of structural and arrhythmic heart disease in an orangutan, emphasizing the role of cardiac disease screening and behavioral training in apes, as well as the value of matching thorough antemortem and postmortem cardiac evaluation.

Temperature along an elevation gradient determines Galapagos tortoise sex ratios.

Climate change threatens endemic island ectothermic reptiles that display small population sizes and temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). Studies of captive Galapagos tortoises demonstrate type A TSD with warmer incubation temperatures producing females. However, there are few published data from free-living Galapagos tortoises on incubation temperature regimes, and none on hatchling sex ratios in the wild or the potential impacts of climate change on future sex ratios. We sought to address these deficits by quantifying incubation temperatures of nests and sex ratios of juvenile tortoises along an elevation gradient on Santa Cruz Island. We focused on three geographically separated nesting zones with mean elevations of 14 m (lower), 57 m (middle), and 107 m (upper) above sea level. Nest temperatures in 54 nests distributed across the three nesting zones were measured every 4 h throughout the incubation period using iButton thermochrons. We used coelioscopy to conduct visual exams of gonads to determine the sex of 40 juvenile tortoises from the three nesting zones. During the middle trimester of incubation, the period during which sex is determined in turtles, mean nest temperatures were 25.75°C (SD = 1.08) in the upper zone, and 27.02°C (SD = 1.09), and 27.09°C (SD = 0.85) in the middle and lower zones, respectively. The proportion of juveniles that was male increased from 11.1% in the lower zone and 9.5% in the middle zone, to 80% in the upper zone. A ca. 50 m increase in elevation induced a decrease of >1.25°C in mean nest temperature during the second trimester of incubation. Over the same elevation change, the proportion of males in the juvenile tortoise population increased by ca. 70%. Temperatures on Galapagos are predicted to increase by 1-4°C over the next 50 years, which is likely to increase the frequency of female tortoises across the archipelago.

ANALYSIS OF SERUM PROTEINS IN HEALTHY GIANT PANDAS (AILUROPODA MELANOLEUCA) UNDER MANAGED CARE.

Electrophoresis is a practical diagnostic tool for the identification of changes in serum protein fractions, which can be associated with a variety of diseases. Protein electrophoresis studies in Ursidae are limited, and currently no published fraction values are available for the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The aim of this study was to describe the serum protein fractions in the giant panda using both capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) and standard agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE) techniques. Serum samples from nine healthy giant pandas (n = 19) were used for this study. Samples were evaluated using CZE and standard AGE. The CZE procedure successfully resolved serum proteins into seven fractions: prealbumin; albumin; and α1-, α2-, ß1-, ß2-, and γ-globulin; while AGE separated serum into only six protein fractions: prealbumin; albumin; α1-, α2-, and ß-globulins; and γ-globulin. These data will serve as a preliminary baseline for further studies and provide insight for the medical management of giant pandas.

Suction feeding by elephants.

Despite having a trunk that weighs over 100 kg, elephants mainly feed on lightweight vegetation. How do elephants manipulate such small items? In this experimental and theoretical investigation, we filmed elephants at Zoo Atlanta showing that they can use suction to grab food, performing a behaviour that was previously thought to be restricted to fishes. We use a mathematical model to show that an elephant's nostril size and lung capacity enables them to grab items using comparable pressures as the human lung. Ultrasonographic imaging of the elephant sucking viscous fluids show that the elephant's nostrils dilate up to [Formula: see text] in radius, which increases the nasal volume by [Formula: see text]. Based on the pressures applied, we estimate that the elephants can inhale at speeds of over 150 m s-1, nearly 30 times the speed of a human sneeze. These high air speeds enable the elephant to vacuum up piles of rutabaga cubes as well as fragile tortilla chips. We hope these findings inspire further work in suction-based manipulation in both animals and robots.

Leukocyte and Platelet Characteristics of the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): Morphological, Cytochemical, and Ultrastructural Features.

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a vulnerable species and a charismatic member of zoological collections worldwide. Despite its importance as a representative species for global wildlife conservation efforts, no studies to date have described normal cell morphology or cytoplasmic constituents by traditional techniques such as cytochemical staining and evaluation of ultrastructural features. The objective of this study was to accurately identify and characterize the leukocytes and platelets of clinically healthy giant pandas using routine Wright-Giemsa stain, eight cytochemical stains, immunocytochemistry (CD3), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to further the collective understanding of normal cellular morphological features, cytochemical reactivity, and cytoplasmic contents found in health. Voluntary venipuncture was performed on four healthy individual animals (two adults and two juveniles), as part of routine preventive health evaluation. Blood was collected for routine and cytochemical stains, and into 2.5% glutaraldehyde for TEM. On Wright-Giemsa-stained blood films, leukocytes were differentiated into granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and mononuclear cells (lymphocytes, monocytes). Cytochemical staining revealed similar leukocyte and platelet staining patterns to those reported in other mammals, with some notable differences. By TEM, leukocytes with nuclear and cytoplasmic features of mononuclear cells were readily differentiated from granulocytes, and platelets had similar ultrastructural features to those reported in other mammals. Neutrophils were the predominant cell type followed by lymphocytes, while basophils were rare. Rare large or reactive lymphocytes, rare reactive monocytes, and rare large platelets were noted in apparently healthy giant pandas of this study. A unique mononuclear cell, with a moderately indented nucleus and shared cytochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of lymphocytes and monocytes, was discovered in this species. The combined cytochemical, immunocytochemical (CD3), and ultrastructural features of these unique cells more closely resemble those of monocytes, but the definitive cell lineage remains unknown at this time. This study provides novel information on giant panda leukocyte morphology and cellular constituents in health, shows the importance of manual blood film review, has important implications for hemogram interpretation in future clinical cases and research, and provides a baseline for future characterization and understanding of hemogram changes in response to disease.

SURVEY OF CLINICAL OPHTHALMIC DISEASE IN THE GIANT PANDA (AILUROPODA MELANOLEUCA) AMONG NORTH AMERICAN ZOOLOGICAL INSTITUTIONS.

This study surveyed six North American zoologic institutions to collect retrospective information on the incidence of ocular disease in the giant panda. Reported information included sex and age at presentation, as well as diagnosis, treatment, duration, and clinical outcome for each episode of ocular disease. Among the 42 animals included in the survey, 10 (23.8%) had clinical ocular abnormalities reported. Multiple disease episodes were reported in four animals, with 20 clinical episodes, and one additional animal who presented with corneal scarring from historic keratitis. Age at presentation varied from 0.4 to 26 yr (mean, 11.8 yr; median, 10.4 yr). Corneal abnormalities (including corneal opacity or haze, keratitis, corneal ulcers, and bullous keratopathy) were the most common pathologies reported, followed by conjunctivitis and/or ocular discharge. Additional reported abnormalities included limbal squamous cell carcinoma and lipid degeneration. Six cases resolved without intervention. Treatment protocols included topical and/or systemic medication with or without surgical intervention, which commonly resulted in resolution with or without persistent corneal scar. The prevalence of ocular disease identified in the giant panda in this study is higher than previous publications surveying ocular disease in the family Ursidae, indicating that this is an important source of morbidity in this species.

SERUM TRACE NUTRIENT VALUES IN FOUR CAPTIVE GIANT PANDAS (AILUROPODA MELANOLEUCA).

Trace nutrients have been shown to play important health roles in both domestic and wild animals, but there has been little investigation into their values and effects in giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The goal of this study was to obtain serum vitamin and mineral values in a group of healthy, captive giant pandas (n = 4). Twenty-seven samples were obtained from the group from 2008 to 2012. Serum analytes measured included retinol, α-tocopherol, hydroxyvitamin D, cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn). The diet was evaluated for protein, fat, fiber, Ca, P, magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Mo. Comparison with other giant panda nutrient values were made. Further research with increased sample sizes and different populations are warranted.

EFFECTS OF A LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE ON THE PRODUCTION OF CHOLECALCIFEROL AND ASSOCIATED BLOOD PARAMETERS IN THE BEARDED DRAGON ( POGONA VITTICEPS).

The importance of vitamin D3 has been documented in multiple reptile species, with deficiencies resulting in alterations in calcium homeostasis, including nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism. Though vitamin D3 can be obtained directly from dietary sources or from photobiosynthetic production, species variability in diet and behavior makes exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation an essential requirement for some diurnal species. The effect of different bulbs to promote synthesis of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) in the bearded dragon ( Pogona vitticeps) was evaluated. Individual animals ( n = 5 for each group) were exposed to industry standard fluorescent bulbs (UVB), non-UVB producing bulbs (UVBN), and light-emitting diode (LED) UVB (LED) bulbs for a period of 11 mo. Weekly measurements of UV index (UVI) were recorded for each bulb. Plasma vitamin D3, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25OHD3), ionized calcium (iCa), total calcium (TCa), and phosphorus (P) were measured at time zero and at 4 mo, 8 mo, and 11 mo. Parameters were measured between groups and time points. There were decreases ( P < 0.05) with time for iCa for the LED and UVB groups, for TCa in the UVB group, and for vitamin D3 in the LED and UVBN groups. There were no significant differences between study groups for vitamin D3, iCa, TCa, or P. Overall plasma concentration for 25OHD3 in the LED group was greater than for the UVB ( P = 0.0347) and the UVBN ( P = 0.0490) groups.

The birth of a giant panda: Tracking the biological factors that successfully contribute to conception through to postnatal development.

Reproducing giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) remains the most challenging aspect of managed care of this species. However, advancement in knowledge stemming from basic science research on the giant panda has facilitated a growth in the population. Here, we report the successful application of reproductive technologies, including noninvasive hormone monitoring, behavioral/morphometric observations, ultrasonographic evaluations, and acute phase protein assessment, in an individual female. By applying these approaches to one female, we report the practicality and usefulness of a multidisciplinary approach to reproductive care of the species. In addition, the utilization of various technologies across multiple physiological states also provided us an opportunity to record previously understudied events, such as maternal response to weaning and growth of a conceptus.

SURGICAL TREATMENT OF PULMONARY MELANOPHOROMA IN A BEADED LIZARD (HELODERMA HORRIDUM EXASPERATUM).

An adult male Rio Fuerte beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum exasperatum) was examined because of a history of anorexia and lethargy of one week duration. Diagnostic tests included a physical exam, complete blood cell count, plasma biochemistries, whole-body radiographs, and ultrasonography. The physical exam revealed the presence of a large mass in the midcoelomic cavity. Radiographs confirmed the presence of the midcoelomic mass and showed a smaller mass in the right cranial lung field. The ultrasonogram showed a homogeneous mass with soft tissue echogenicity. A fine-needle aspirate was collected, and the cytology results were suggestive of a melanophoroma. Exploratory surgery revealed a large mass (10×6 cm) within the right lung, with extensive adhesions to the caudolateral margin of the right liver lobe. The smaller mass (2×3 cm) was within the cranial aspect of the right lung. A right pulmonectomy and partial hepatectomy were performed to remove the tumors. The animal died 3.5-yr postsurgery, and histopathologic evaluation did not show evidence of melanophoroma in any of the tissues evaluated.

Clinical canine parvovirus type 2C infection in a group of Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinerea).

Despite the occurrence of clinical disease in a wide range of carnivore hosts, only vague accounts of clinical canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) in any otter species have been reported in the literature. Over the course of 25 days, nine Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinerea) presented for evaluation of inappetence, lethargy, vomiting, and diarrhea. A diagnosis of canine parvovirus type 2c was made based on electron microscopy, polymerase chain reaction, and DNA sequencing of group fecal samples. Supportive care was provided based on individual clinical assessment and included subcutaneous crystalline fluid therapy, antiemetics, antibiotics, appetite stimulants, and a neuraminidase inhibitor. Five of the nine otters exhibited moderate to severe disease requiring treatment, and one case was fatal despite supportive efforts. In light of this case report, CPV-2 should be recognized as a potential cause of gastrointestinal disease in Asian small-clawed otters.

Fission yeast-based high-throughput screens for PKA pathway inhibitors and activators.

Features of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe cAMP/PKA pathway make S. pombe particularly amenable for heterologous expression of cAMP pathway proteins such as GαS subunits and their cognate adenylyl cyclases, PKA catalytic and regulatory subunits, and cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases. We have constructed two PKA-repressed reporters for use in high-throughput screens to detect compounds that elevate or reduce PKA activity, thus facilitating the discovery of both inhibitors and activators of these target proteins. Here, we describe steps to construct screening strains and to optimize and conduct these screens.

Comparison of anesthesia with fully reversible dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam versus ketamine-midazolam in captive Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinereus).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of a combination of dexmedetomidine, butorphanol, and midazolam administered IM for anesthesia in captive Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinereus) and to compare this combination with a combination of ketamine and midazolam. DESIGN: Prospective crossover study. ANIMALS: 10 captive Asian small-clawed otters. PROCEDURES: A combination of either dexmedetomidine (0.03 mg/kg [0.014 mg/lb]), butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg [0.091 mg/lb]), and midazolam (0.15 mg/kg [0.068 mg/lb]) or ketamine (10.1 mg/kg [4.59 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.3 mg/kg [0.14 mg/lb]) was administered IM to otters for immobilization to allow scheduled wellness examinations. Otters were intubated and administered 100% oxygen during the examination. Anesthesia was supplemented with isoflurane in oxygen if necessary. Routine medical procedures, including blood collection, radiography, echocardiography, dental scaling, vaccinations, and contraception administration, were performed as indicated during the immobilization. Physiologic, clinicopathologic, and anesthetic variables were recorded and compared. Otters given dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam were administered atipamezole (0.2 mg/kg [0.091 mg/lb]), naltrexone (0.6 mg/kg [0.27 mg/lb]), and flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) IM at the completion of the examination. RESULTS: The need for and duration of isoflurane administration were greater for ketamine-midazolam anesthesia, compared with dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam anesthesia. Recoveries were shorter and subjectively smoother with dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam. Heart rates were significantly higher during ketamine-midazolam anesthesia. Regardless of protocol, all otters developed hypothermia and hypercapnia during anesthesia. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Both protocols were safe and effective for this species, but the reversible nature of dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam resulted in more rapid recoveries than did ketamine-midazolam. Otters anesthetized with ketamine-midazolam may require additional anesthetic medications for routine examinations, and assisted ventilation and thermal support may be of benefit with either protocol.

Development of a quantitative PCR for rapid and sensitive diagnosis of an intranuclear coccidian parasite in Testudines (TINC), and detection in the critically endangered Arakan forest turtle (Heosemys depressa).

The intranuclear coccidian parasite of Testudines (TINC) is responsible for significant disease in turtles and tortoises causing high mortality and affecting several threatened species. Diagnostic testing has been limited to relatively labor intensive and expensive pan-coccidial PCR and sequencing techniques. A qPCR assay targeting a specific and conserved region of TINC 18S rRNA was designed. The qPCR reaction was run on samples known to be TINC positive and the results were consistent and analytically specific. The assay was able to detect as little as 10 copies of target DNA in a sample. Testing of soil and invertebrates was negative and did not provide any further insights into life cycles. This assay was used to identify TINC in a novel host species, the critically endangered Arakan forest turtle (Heosemys depressa).

Pharmacokinetics of tetracycline after single-dose oral administration in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).

The major objective of the study was to assess the pharmacokinetics of tetracycline administered orally to fasted and nonfasted American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) at 50 mg/kg. Plasma levels of tetracycline were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. The concentration versus time curve was analyzed using a compartmental modeling technique. A one-compartment model with first-order absorption and elimination, as well as a lag time to absorption, best described the data. The area under the curve and mean residence time values differed significantly between the fasted and nonfasted groups. Based on the results of this study, tetracycline suspension administered once orally at 50 mg/kg to American alligators is not expected to reach plasma concentrations above the breakpoint minimum inhibitory concentration of 4 microg/ml for susceptible organisms.