Framework for developing a national surgical, obstetric and anaesthesia plan.

Background: Emergency and essential surgical, obstetric and anaesthesia (SOA) care are now recognized components of universal health coverage, necessary for a functional health system. To improve surgical care at a national level, strategic planning addressing the six domains of a surgical system is needed. This paper details a process for development of a national surgical, obstetric and anaesthesia plan (NSOAP) based on the experiences of frontline providers, Ministry of Health officials, WHO leaders, and consultants. Methods: Development of a NSOAP involves eight key steps: Ministry support and ownership; situation analysis and baseline assessments; stakeholder engagement and priority setting; drafting and validation; monitoring and evaluation; costing; governance; and implementation. Drafting a NSOAP involves defining the current gaps in care, synthesizing and prioritizing solutions, and providing an implementation and monitoring plan with a projected cost for the six domains of a surgical system: infrastructure, service delivery, workforce, information management, finance and governance. Results: To date, four countries have completed NSOAPs and 23 more have committed to development. Lessons learned from these previous NSOAP processes are described in detail. Conclusion: There is global movement to address the burden of surgical disease, improving quality and access to SOA care. The development of a strategic plan to address gaps across the SOA system systematically is a critical first step to ensuring countrywide scale-up of surgical system-strengthening activities.

Antecedentes: En la actualidad, se reconoce que la atención quirúrgica, obstétrica y anestésica urgente y esencial (surgical, obstetric, and anaesthesia, SOA) es uno de los componentes de la cobertura sanitaria universal y un elemento necesario para el funcionamiento de un sistema de salud. Para mejorar la atención quirúrgica a nivel nacional, se necesita una planificación estratégica que aborde los seis dominios de un sistema quirúrgico. En este artículo, se detalla el proceso para el desarrollo de un plan nacional de cirugía, obstetricia y anestesia (national surgical, obstetric, and anaesthesia plan, NSOAP) basado en las experiencias de los principales proveedores, los funcionarios del Ministerio de Salud, los líderes de la Organización Mundial de la Salud y consultores. Métodos: El desarrollo de un NSOAP incluye ocho pasos clave: (1) apoyo y dependencia del ministerio, (2) análisis de la situación y evaluaciones de referencia, (3) compromiso de los agentes implicados y establecimiento de prioridades, (4) redacción y validación, (5) seguimiento y evaluación, (6) análisis de costes, (7) gobernanza y (8) implementación. Redactar un NSOAP implica definir los déficits actuales en la atención, sintetizar y priorizar soluciones, y proporcionar un plan de implementación y seguimiento con unos costes proyectados para los seis dominios de un sistema quirúrgico: infraestructura, prestación de servicios, personal, gestión de la información, finanzas y gobernanza. Resultados: Hasta la fecha, cuatro países han completado un NSOAP y 23 más se han comprometido con su desarrollo. Las lecciones aprendidas de estos procesos previos de NSOAP se describen con detalle. Conclusiones: Existe un movimiento global para abordar la carga de las enfermedades que precisan cirugía, mejorar la calidad y el acceso a la atención SOA. El desarrollo de un plan estratégico para la aproximación sistemáticamente los déficits en todo el sistema SOA es un primer paso crítico para garantizar la ampliación a nivel nacional de las actividades de fortalecimiento del sistema quirúrgico.

Growing research in global surgery with an eye towards equity.

BACKGROUND: Global surgery research is often generated through collaborative partnerships between researchers from both low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and high-income countries (HICs). Inequitable engagement of LMIC collaborators can limit the impact of the research. METHODS: This article describes evidence of inequities in the conduct of global surgery research and outlines reasons why the inequities in this research field may be more acute than in other global health research disciplines. The paper goes on to describe activities for building a collaborative research portfolio in rural Rwanda. RESULTS: Inequities in global surgery research collaborations can be attributed to: a limited number and experience of researchers working in this field; time constraints on both HIC and LMIC global surgery researchers; and surgical journal policies. Approaches to build a robust, collaborative research portfolio in Rwanda include leading research trainings focused on global surgery projects, embedding surgical fellows in Rwanda to provide bidirectional research training and outlining all research products, ensuring that all who are engaged have opportunities to grow in capacities, including leading research, and that collaborators share opportunities equitably. Of the 22 published or planned papers, half are led by Rwandan researchers, and the research now has independent research funding. CONCLUSION: It is unacceptable to gather data from an LMIC without meaningful engagement in all aspects of the research and sharing opportunities with local collaborators. The strategies outlined here can help research teams build global surgery research portfolios that optimize the potential for equitable engagement.

Prevalence and predictors of surgical-site infection after caesarean section at a rural district hospital in Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: There are few prospective studies of outcomes following surgery in rural district hospitals in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and predictors of surgical-site infection (SSI) following caesarean section at Kirehe District Hospital in rural Rwanda. METHODS: Adult women who underwent caesarean section between March and October 2017 were given a voucher to return to the hospital on postoperative day (POD) 10 (±3 days). At the visit, a physician evaluated the patient for an SSI. A multivariable logistic regression model was used to identify risk factors for SSI, built using backward stepwise selection. RESULTS: Of 729 women who had a caesarean section, 620 were eligible for follow-up, of whom 550 (88·7 per cent) returned for assessment. The prevalence of SSI on POD 10 was 10·9 per cent (60 women). In the multivariable analysis, the following factors were significantly associated with SSI: bodyweight more than 75 kg (odds ratio (OR) 5·98, 1·56 to 22·96; P = 0·009); spending more than €1·1 on travel to the health centre (OR 2·42, 1·31 to 4·49; P = 0·005); being a housewife compared with a farmer (OR 2·93, 1·08 to 7·97; P = 0·035); and skin preparation with a single antiseptic compared with a combination of two antiseptics (OR 4·42, 1·05 to 18·57; P = 0·043). Receiving either preoperative or postoperative antibiotics was not associated with SSI. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of SSI after caesarean section is consistent with rates reported at tertiary facilities in sub-Saharan Africa. Combining antiseptic solutions for skin preparation could reduce the risk of SSI.

Assessing the cost of laparotomy at a rural district hospital in Rwanda using time-driven activity-based costing.

BACKGROUND: In low- and middle-income countries, the majority of patients lack access to surgical care due to limited personnel and infrastructure. The Lancet Commission on Global Surgery recommended laparotomy for district hospitals. However, little is known about the cost of laparotomy and associated clinical care in these settings. METHODS: This costing study included patients with acute abdominal conditions at three rural district hospitals in 2015 in Rwanda, and used a time-driven activity-based costing methodology. Capacity cost rates were calculated for personnel, location and hospital indirect costs, and multiplied by time estimates to obtain allocated costs. Costs of medications and supplies were based on purchase prices. RESULTS: Of 51 patients with an acute abdominal condition, 19 (37 per cent) had a laparotomy; full costing data were available for 17 of these patients, who were included in the costing analysis. The total cost of an entire care cycle for laparotomy was US$1023·40, which included intraoperative costs of US$427·15 (41·7 per cent) and preoperative and postoperative costs of US$596·25 (58·3 per cent). The cost of medicines was US$358·78 (35·1 per cent), supplies US$342·15 (33·4 per cent), personnel US$150·39 (14·7 per cent), location US$89·20 (8·7 per cent) and hospital indirect cost US$82·88 (8·1 per cent). CONCLUSION: The intraoperative cost of laparotomy was similar to previous estimates, but any plan to scale-up laparotomy capacity at district hospitals should consider the sizeable preoperative and postoperative costs. Although lack of personnel and limited infrastructure are commonly cited surgical barriers at district hospitals, personnel and location costs were among the lowest cost contributors; similar location-related expenses at tertiary hospitals might be higher than at district hospitals, providing further support for decentralization of these services.

Risk of Catastrophic Health Expenditure in Rwandan Surgical Patients with Peritonitis.

BACKGROUND: Surgical procedures are cost-effective compared with various medical and public health interventions. While peritonitis often requires surgery, little is known regarding the associated costs, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The aim of this study was to determine in-hospital charges for patients with peritonitis and if patients are at risk of catastrophic health expenditure. METHODS: As part of a larger study examining the epidemiology and outcomes of patients with peritonitis at a referral hospital in Rwanda, patients undergoing operation for peritonitis were enrolled and hospital charges were examined. The primary outcome was the percentage of patients at risk for catastrophic health expenditure. Logistic regression was used to determine the association of various factors with risk for catastrophic health expenditure. RESULTS: Over a 6-month period, 280 patients underwent operation for peritonitis. In-hospital charges were available for 245 patients. A total of 240 (98%) patients had health insurance. Median total hospital charges were 308.1 USD, and the median amount paid by patients was 26.9 USD. Thirty-three (14%) patients were at risk of catastrophic health expenditure based on direct medical expenses. Estimating out-of-pocket non-medical expenses, 68 (28%) patients were at risk of catastrophic health expenditure. Unplanned reoperation was associated with increased risk of catastrophic health expenditure (p < 0.001), whereas patients with community-based health insurance had decreased risk of catastrophic health expenditure (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The median hospital charges paid out-of-pocket by patients with health insurance were small in relation to total charges. A significant number of patients with peritonitis are at risk of catastrophic health expenditure.

Caring for patients with surgically resectable cancers: experience from a specialised centre in rural Rwanda.

SETTING: Butaro Cancer Centre of Excellence (BCCOE), Burera District, Rwanda. OBJECTIVES: To describe characteristics, management and 6-month outcome of adult patients presenting with potentially surgically resectable cancers. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of patients presenting between 1 July and 31 December 2012. RESULTS: Of 278 patients, 76.6% were female, 51.4% were aged 50-74 years and 75% were referred from other district or tertiary hospitals in Rwanda. For the 250 patients with treatment details, 115 (46%) underwent surgery, with or without chemotherapy/radiotherapy. Median time from admission to surgery was 21 days (IQR 2-91). Breast cancer was the most common type of cancer treated at BCCOE, while other forms of cancer (cervical, colorectal and head and neck) were mainly operated on in tertiary facilities. Ninety-nine patients had no treatment; 52% of these were referred out within 6 months, primarily for palliative care. At 6 months, 6.8% had died or were lost to follow-up. CONCLUSION: Surgical care was provided for many cancer patients referred to BCCOE. However, challenges such as inadequate surgical infrastructure and skills, and patients presenting late with advanced and unresectable disease can limit the ability to manage all cases. This study highlights opportunities and challenges in cancer care relevant to other hospitals in rural settings.

Contexte : Centre anticancéreux d'excellence de Butaro (BCCOE), District de Butera, Rwanda.Objectifs : Décrire les caractéristiques, la prise en charge et les résultats à 6 mois de patients adultes se présentant avec des cancers potentiellement extirpables par chirurgie.Schema : Etude rétrospective de cohorte des patients admis entre le 1er juillet et le 31 décembre 2012.Resultats : Sur 278 patients, 76,6% étaient des femmes, 51,4% étaient âgés entre 50 et 74 ans et 75% étaient référés d'un autre district ou d'un hôpital tertiaire du Rwanda. Parmi les 250 patients dont les traitements étaient connus, 115 (46%) ont bénéficié d'une intervention chirurgicale avec ou sans chimiothérapie/radiothérapie. Le temps médian écoulé entre l'admission et la chirurgie était de 21 jours (IQR 2 à 91). Le cancer du sein était le plus fréquent des cancers traités au BCCOE, tandis que les autres cancers (col utérin, colorectal et tumeur cérébrale ou cervicale) étaient généralement opérés dans des hôpitaux tertiaires. Quatre-vingt-dix-neuf patients n'ont eu aucun traitement ; 52% ont été référés à l'extérieur dans les 6 mois, généralement pour un traitement palliatif. A 6 mois, 6,8% étaient décédés ou perdus de vue.Conclusion : De nombreux patients référés au BCCOE pour cancer ont bénéficié d'une intervention chirurgicale. Cependant la prise en charge de tous les cas est confrontée à la limite de capacité chirurgicale et au problème des patients admis tardivement avec un cancer avancé et non extirpable. Cette étude met en lumière les opportunités et les défis de la prise en charge des cancers pour les hôpitaux situés en zone rurale.

Marco de Referencia: El Centro Butaro de Excelencia en Cáncer (BCCOE) del distrito de Burera, en Ruanda.Objetivos: Describir las características, el manejo y el desenlace clínico a los 6 meses de pacientes adultos que se presentaron con cánceres cuyo tratamiento quirúrgico podía ser viable.Métodos: Fue este un estudio retrospectivo de cohortes de los pacientes que acudieron al centro entre el 1° de julio y el 31 de diciembre del 2012.Resultados: Se incluyeron en el estudio 278 pacientes, de los cuales 76,6% eran de sexo femenino, 51,4% tenían entre 50 y 74 años de edad y 75% habían sido remitidos de otro hospital distrital o de centros de atención terciaria de Ruanda. De los 250 expedientes que contaban con detalles sobre el tratamiento, en 115 casos (46%) los pacientes recibieron tratamiento quirúrgico con o sin quimioterapia o radioterapia. La mediana del lapso entre la hospitalización y la cirugía fue 21 días (intervalo intercuartil de 2 a 91). El cáncer de mama fue el tipo más frecuente de cáncer que se trató en el BCCOE y la cirugía de otras formas de cáncer (cuello uterino, colorrectal y de cara y cuello) se realizó principalmente en centros de atención terciaria. Noventa y nueve pacientes no recibieron tratamiento; el 52% de estos se remitió a otras instituciones en los primeros 6 meses, esencialmente con el propósito de recibir tratamiento paliativo. A los 6 meses, el 6,8% de los pacientes había fallecido o se habían perdido durante el seguimiento.Conclusión: Muchos de los pacientes remitidos recibieron tratamiento quirúrgico en el BCCOE. Sin embargo, la posibilidad de tratar todos los casos se ve limitada por obstáculos como una capacidad quirúrgica inadecuada y el hecho de que los pacientes acuden tarde, en una fase avanzada de la enfermedad, con un cáncer inoperable. El presente estudio pone de relieve oportunidades y dificultades en el tratamiento del cáncer que son pertinentes para otros centros hospitalarios en un entorno rural.

Systems-based Quality Improvement as a Tool to Implement the Surgical Safety Checklist in Rwanda

Objective: Effective strategies for implementation of the World Health Organization's Surgical Safety Checklist (SSCL) are not well characterized in resource-limited settings. Our objective was to utilize a systems-based quality improvement (QI) approach to initially implement a single; high-priority item from the SSCL. Setting: Butaro Hospital; a rural district hospital in northern Rwanda. Methods: A surgical service QI team was formed and trained with support of local leadership and expatriate staff trained in QI methodology. The team identified perioperative antibiotic administration as the first SSCL area for improvement. Baseline performance was measured by sampled chart review of Cesarean sections. Using systems-based QI methods and the Model for Improvement; a protocol for choice and timing of perioperative antibiotics was identified as the necessary intervention; developed; and then implemented. The impact on performance and spread of QI was measured. Results: At baseline; only 5.2 of Cesarean section patients received both correct choice and timing of a prophylactic antibiotic agent. After development of the protocol; appropriate choice and timing of antibiotic was observed in 61.7 of cases (p 0.001). This initial QI initiative stimulated additional projects to implement other components of the SSCL and to improve quality of surgical and anesthetic care. Conclusions: Implementing one component of the SSCL using QI methodology focused on stakeholder engagement; measurement; and team-based development of iterative systems of improvements facilitated a cultural change at Butaro Hospital. Training and support in QI methods can create an environment in which the SSCL and other efforts for quality in surgical and anesthetic care can be more readily implemented

Electrocardiographic ST-segment elevation: the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction by morphologic analysis of the ST segment.

UNLABELLED: Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is one of many causes of ST-segment elevation (STE) in emergency department (ED) chest pain (CP) patients. The morphology of STE may assist in the correct determination of its cause, with concave patterns in non-AMI syndromes and non-concave waveforms in AMI. OBJECTIVES: To determine the impact of STE morphologic analysis on AMI diagnosis and the ability of this technique to separate AMI from non-infarction causes of STE. METHODS: The electrocardiograms (ECGs) of consecutive ED adult CP patients (with three serial troponin I determinations) were interpreted in two-step fashion by six attending emergency physicians (EPs): 1) the determination of STE by three EPs followed by 2) STE morphologic analysis (either concave or non-concave) in those patients with STE. The impact of STE morphology analysis was investigated in the identification of AMI and non-AMI causes of STE. Acute myocardial infarction was diagnosed by abnormal serum troponin I values (>0.1 mg/dL) followed by a rise and fall of the serum marker; STE diagnoses of non-AMI causes were determined by medical record review. Interobserver reliability concerning STE morphology was determined. Study inclusion criteria included at least three troponin values performed in serial fashion no more frequently than every three hours, initial ED ECG, ED diagnosis, and final hospital diagnosis. RESULTS: Five hundred ninety-nine CP patients were entered in the study, with 171 (29%) individuals having STE on their ECGs. Of the 171 patients who had STE, 56 had AMI, 50 had unstable angina pectoris (USAP), and 65 had non-coronary final diagnoses. Forty-nine patients had non-concave STE, 46 with AMI and three with USAP; no patient with a non-coronary diagnosis had a non-concave STE morphology. The sensitivity and specificity of the non-concave STE morphology for AMI diagnoses were 77% and 97%, respectively; the positive and negative predictive values for non-concave morphology in AMI diagnoses were 94% and 88%, respectively. Interobserver reliability in the STE morphology determination revealed a kappa coefficient of 0.87. CONCLUSIONS: A non-concave STE morphology is frequently encountered in AMI patients. While the sensitivity of this pattern for AMI diagnosis is not particularly helpful, the presence of this finding in adult ED chest pain patients with STE strongly suggests AMI. This technique produces consistent results among these EPs.