Association Between Changes in Racial Residential and School Segregation and Trends in Racial Health Disparities, 2000-2020: A Life Course Perspective.

INTRODUCTION: Most studies of the relationship between racial segregation and racial health disparities have focused on residential segregation. School-based racial segregation is an additional form of segregation that may be associated with racial disparities in health. This study examines the relationship between both residential segregation and school segregation and racial health disparities among non-Hispanic Black compared to non-Hispanic White persons at the county level in the United States. It also examines the relationship between changes in residential and school segregation and subsequent trajectories in a variety of racial health disparities across the life course. METHODS: Using the CDC WONDER Multiple Case of Death database, we derived an annual estimate of race-specific death rates and rate ratios for each county during the period 2000-2020. We then examined the relationship between baseline levels of residential and school segregation in 1991 as well as changes between 1991-2000 and the trajectories of the observed racial health disparities between 2000 and 2020. We used latent trajectory analysis to identify counties with similar patterns of residential and school segregation over time and to identify counties with similar trajectories in each racial health disparity. Outcomes included life expectancy, early mortality (prior to age 65), infant mortality, firearm homicide, total homicide, and teenage pregnancy rates. RESULTS: During the period 1991-2020, racial residential segregation remained essentially unchanged among the 1051 counties in our sample; however, racial school segregation increased during this period. Increases in school segregation from 1991 to 2000 were associated with higher racial disparities in each of the health outcomes during the period 2000-2020 and with less progress in reducing these disparities. CONCLUSION: This paper provides new evidence that school segregation is an independent predictor of racial health disparities and that reducing school segregation-even in the face of high residential segregation-could have a long-term impact on reducing racial health disparities. Furthermore, it suggests that the health consequences of residential segregation have not been eliminated from our society but are now being exacerbated by a new factor: school-based segregation. Throughout this paper, changes in school-based segregation not only show up as a consistent significant predictor of greater racial disparities throughout the life course, but at times, an even stronger predictor of health inequity than residential segregation.

Benefits of integrated behavioral health services: The physician perspective.

INTRODUCTION: There are benefits of integrating a behavioral health specialist in primary care; however, little is known about the physicians' perspectives. The purpose of this study was to explore primary care physicians' beliefs regarding the benefits of integrated care for both patients and themselves. METHOD: Fifteen senior staff physicians and 78 residents completed surveys regarding their opinions of referring to a psychologist in a patient-centered medical home. RESULTS: The top reasons that physicians believed their patients followed through with a visit with an integrated psychologist included that they recommended it (79.5%) and that patients can be seen in the same primary care clinic (76.9%). The overwhelming majority of physicians were satisfied with having access to an integrated psychologist (97.4%). Physicians believed that integrated care directly improves patient care (93.8%), is a needed service (90.3%), and helps provide better care to patients (80.9%). In addition, physicians reported that having an integrated psychologist reduces their personal stress level (90.1%). CONCLUSION: Primary care physicians may be motivated to integrate behavioral health services into their clinics knowing that other physicians believe that it directly and indirectly improves patient care and physician stress.

Evaluating the clinical and cost effectiveness of a behaviour change intervention for lowering cardiovascular disease risk for people with severe mental illnesses in primary care (PRIMROSE study): study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: People with severe mental illnesses die up to 20 years earlier than the general population, with cardiovascular disease being the leading cause of death. National guidelines recommend that the physical care of people with severe mental illnesses should be the responsibility of primary care; however, little is known about effective interventions to lower cardiovascular disease risk in this population and setting. Following extensive peer review, funding was secured from the United Kingdom National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) to deliver the proposed study. The aim of the trial is to test the effectiveness of a behavioural intervention to lower cardiovascular disease risk in people with severe mental illnesses in United Kingdom General Practices. METHODS/DESIGN: The study is a cluster randomised controlled trial in 70 GP practices for people with severe mental illnesses, aged 30 to 75 years old, with elevated cardiovascular disease risk factors. The trial will compare the effectiveness of a behavioural intervention designed to lower cardiovascular disease risk and delivered by a practice nurse or healthcare assistant, with standard care offered in General Practice. A total of 350 people will be recruited and followed up at 6 and 12 months. The primary outcome is total cholesterol level at the 12-month follow-up and secondary outcomes include blood pressure, body mass index, waist circumference, smoking status, quality of life, adherence to treatments and services and behavioural measures for diet, physical activity and alcohol use. An economic evaluation will be carried out to determine the cost effectiveness of the intervention compared with standard care. DISCUSSION: The results of this pragmatic trial will provide evidence on the clinical and cost effectiveness of the intervention on lowering total cholesterol and addressing multiple cardiovascular disease risk factors in people with severe mental illnesses in GP Practices. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN13762819. Date of Registration: 25 February 2013. Date and Version Number: 27 August 2014 Version 5.