Pharmacologic Interventions to Prevent Delirium in Trauma Patients: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

To compare the relative efficacy of pharmacologic interventions in the prevention of delirium in ICU trauma patients. DATA SOURCES: We searched Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, Embase, and Cochrane Registry of Clinical Trials from database inception until June 7, 2022. We included randomized controlled trials comparing pharmacologic interventions in critically ill trauma patients. STUDY SELECTION: Two reviewers independently screened studies for eligibility, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias. DATA EXTRACTION: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines for network analysis were followed. Random-effects models were fit using a Bayesian approach to network meta-analysis. Between-group comparisons were estimated using hazard ratios (HRs) for dichotomous outcomes and mean differences for continuous outcomes, each with 95% credible intervals. Treatment rankings were estimated for each outcome in the form of surface under the cumulative ranking curve values. DATA SYNTHESIS: A total 3,541 citations were screened; six randomized clinical trials (n = 382 patients) were included. Compared with combined propofol-dexmedetomidine, there may be no difference in delirium prevalence with dexmedetomidine (HR 1.44, 95% CI 0.39-6.94), propofol (HR 2.38, 95% CI 0.68-11.36), nor haloperidol (HR 3.38, 95% CI 0.65-21.79); compared with dexmedetomidine alone, there may be no effect with propofol (HR 1.66, 95% CI 0.79-3.69) nor haloperidol (HR 2.30, 95% CI 0.88-6.61). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this network meta-analysis suggest that there is no difference found between pharmacologic interventions on delirium occurrence, length of ICU stay, length of hospital stay, or mortality, in trauma ICU patients.

Sites of vulnerability in HCV E1E2 identified by comprehensive functional screening.

The E1 and E2 envelope proteins of hepatitis C virus (HCV) form a heterodimer that drives virus-host membrane fusion. Here, we analyze the role of each amino acid in E1E2 function, expressing 545 individual alanine mutants of E1E2 in human cells, incorporating them into infectious viral pseudoparticles, and testing them against 37 different monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to ascertain full-length translation, folding, heterodimer assembly, CD81 binding, viral pseudoparticle incorporation, and infectivity. We propose a model describing the role of each critical residue in E1E2 functionality and use it to examine how MAbs neutralize infection by exploiting functionally critical sites of vulnerability on E1E2. Our results suggest that E1E2 is a surprisingly fragile protein complex where even a single alanine mutation at 92% of positions disrupts its function. The amino-acid-level targets identified are highly conserved and functionally critical and can be exploited for improved therapies and vaccines.

Delirium and Associated Length of Stay and Costs in Critically Ill Patients.

PURPOSE: Delirium frequently affects critically ill patients in the intensive care unit (ICU). The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of delirium on ICU and hospital length of stay (LOS) and perform a cost analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospective studies and randomized controlled trials of patients in the ICU with delirium published between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2020, were evaluated. Outcome variables including ICU and hospital LOS were obtained, and ICU and hospital costs were derived from the respective LOS. RESULTS: Forty-one studies met inclusion criteria. The mean difference of ICU LOS between patients with and without delirium was significant at 4.77 days (p < 0.001); for hospital LOS, this was significant at 6.67 days (p < 0.001). Cost data were extractable for 27 studies in which both ICU and hospital LOS were available. The mean difference of ICU costs between patients with and without delirium was significant at $3,921 (p < 0.001); for hospital costs, the mean difference was $5,936 (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: ICU and hospital LOS and associated costs were significantly higher for patients with delirium, compared to those without delirium. Further research is necessary to elucidate other determinants of increased costs and cost-reducing strategies for critically ill patients with delirium. This can provide insight into the required resources for the prevention of delirium, which may contribute to decreasing healthcare expenditure while optimizing the quality of care.

Frailty Is Associated With Decreased Time Spent at Home After Critical Illness: A Population-Based Study.

BACKGROUND: Frailty is characterized by vulnerability to stressors due to an accumulation of multiple functional deficits. Frailty is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for accelerated functional decline, increasing dependency, and risk of mortality. The objective of this study was to examine the association of frailty, at the time of critical care admission, with days alive at home and health care costs post-discharge. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study used linked administrative data (2010-2016) in Ontario, Canada. We identified all patients admitted at the intensive care unit (ICU), aged 19 years and above, assessed using the Resident Assessment Instrument for Home Care (RAI-HC), within 6 months prior to index hospitalization including an ICU stay. Patients were stratified as robust, pre-frail, or frail based on a validated Frailty Index. The primary outcome was days alive at home in the year after admission. Secondary outcomes included mortality, health care-associated costs, ICU interventions, long-term care admissions, and hospital readmissions. RESULTS: Frail patients spent significantly fewer days at home within 1 year of index hospitalization (mean 159 days vs 223 days in robust cohort, P < .001). Mortality was higher among frail patients at 1 year (59.6% in the frail cohort vs 45.9% in robust patients; odds ratio for death 1.59 [1.49-1.69]). Frail patients also had higher rates of long-term care admission within 1 year (30.1% vs 10.6% in robust patients). Total health care-associated costs per person alive were $30 450 higher the year after admission in the frail cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Frailty prior to ICU admission among patients who were eligible for RAI-HC assessment was associated with higher mortality and fewer days spent at home following admission. Frail patients had markedly higher rates of long-term care admission and increased costs per life saved following critical illness. These findings add to the discussion of risk-benefit trade-offs for ICU admission.

Just the Facts: Postintubation sedation in the emergency department.

A 67-year-old male presents to the emergency department (ED) in respiratory distress secondary to pneumonia. His oxygen saturation is 86% on a nonrebreather, respiratory rate is 32 respirations/minute, blood pressure 147/72 mmHg, heart rate 121 beats/minute, and temperature is 38.7° Celsius. The decision is made to intubate the patient. Fentanyl and propofol are used for analgesia and sedation, and rocuronium is used for paralysis. Using video laryngoscopy, the patient is successfully intubated, and now the ED team is awaiting your orders for the postintubation sedation care of this patient.

Chemotherapy in the Intensive Care Unit: An Evaluation of Context and Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Administration of chemotherapy to highly vulnerable, critically ill patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) is becoming more common, but the process requires significantly more resources than chemotherapy administration in specialized oncology settings. OBJECTIVE: To describe the context, complications, and outcomes of chemotherapy administration for cancer-related indications in ICU patients. METHODS: For this retrospective observational study, consecutive patients receiving parenteral chemotherapy in the ICU at the General Campus of The Ottawa Hospital between January 1, 2014, and December 31, 2017, were identified using pharmacy records. The clinical characteristics of these patients, details of their chemotherapy regimens, and outcomes were analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 32 patients were included in the study. Of these, 27 patients (84%) had a hematological malignancy, 16 (50%) had a documented infection at the time of chemotherapy administration, and 29 (91%) received their first cycle of chemotherapy on an urgent basis during the ICU admission rather than as a scheduled or planned treatment. Severity of illness was high both at ICU admission and at the time of chemotherapy treatment; regimen modifications, drug interactions, and adverse events were common. Remission and survival data were available for 28 patients at 12 months. Eighteen (56%) of the 32 patients survived to hospital discharge, and 12 (38%) survived to 6 months; at 12 months, survival was 25% (7 of 28 patients with available data). About one-quarter of the patients were in remission at 6 and 12 months. CONCLUSION: Administering chemotherapy in the ICU is feasible, but the process is resource-intensive. Patients with aggressive hematological cancers who require treatment on an urgent basis represent the most commonly observed scenario. This study highlights the complexity of management and the importance of multidisciplinary care teams for this patient population.

CONTEXTE: L'administration de chimiothérapie á des patients hautement vulnérables et gravement malades admis dans une unité de soins intensifs (USI) est de plus en plus courante, mais le processus exige beaucoup plus de ressources que dans des environnements spécialisés en oncologie. OBJECTIF: Décrire le contexte, les complications et les résultats de l'administration de chimiothérapie pour les indications liées au cancer de patients admis dans une USI. MÉTHODES: Les patients successifs ayant participé á cette étude observationnelle rétrospective, qui recevaient une chimiothérapie parentérale dans une USI du Campus général de l'Hôpital d'Ottawa entre le 1er janvier 2014 et le 31 décembre 2017, ont été déterminés á l'aide de dossiers de pharmacie. Les caractéristiques cliniques de ces patients, les détails de leur programme de chimiothérapie ainsi que les résultats ont fait l'objet d'une analyse. RÉSULTATS: Trente-deux (32) patients ont été inclus dans l'étude. Parmi eux, 27 (84 %) souffraient d'une hémopathie maligne, 16 (50 %) avaient une infection documentée au moment de l'administration de la chimiothérapie et 29 (91 %) recevaient en urgence le premier cycle de chimiothérapie pendant leur admission á l'USI plutôt que sous forme de traitement programmé ou planifié. Étant donné l'extrême gravité de la maladie lors de l'admission á l'USI et du traitement de chimiothérapie de ces patients, les modifications apportées au programme, les interactions médicamenteuses et les effets secondaires étaient fréquents. Les données relatives á la rémission et á la survie á 12 mois de 28 patients étaient disponibles. Le congé hospitalier a été donné á 18 (56 %) patients survivants sur les 32 admis et 12 (38 %) survivaient au 6e mois, alors qu'au 12e mois, le taux de survie était de 25 % (7 des 28 patients dont les données étaient disponibles). Environ un quart des patients étaient en rémission au 6e et au 12e mois. CONCLUSION: L'administration de chimiothérapie dans une USI est faisable, mais le processus exige beaucoup de ressources. Les patients atteints d'un cancer hématologique agressif qui ont besoin en urgence d'un traitement constituent le scénario le plus courant. Cette étude souligne la complexité de la gestion et l'importance des équipes de soins multidisciplinaires pour cette population de patients.

Dynamic Assessment of Fluid Responsiveness in Surgical ICU Patients Through Stroke Volume Variation is Associated With Decreased Length of Stay and Costs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Static indices, such as the central venous pressure, have proven to be inaccurate predictors of fluid responsiveness. An emerging approach uses dynamic assessment of fluid responsiveness (FT-DYN), such as stroke volume variation (SVV) or surrogate dynamic variables, as more accurate measures of volume status. Recent work has demonstrated that goal-directed therapy guided by FT-DYN was associated with reduced intensive care unit (ICU) mortality; however, no study has specifically assessed this in surgical ICU patients. This study aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on the impact of employing FT-DYN in the perioperative care of surgical ICU patients on length of stay in the ICU. As secondary objectives, we performed a cost analysis of FT-DYN and assessed the impact of FT-DYN versus standard care on hospital length of stay and mortality. We identified all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) through MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CENTRAL that examined adult patients in the ICU who were randomized to standard care or to FT-DYN from inception to September 2017. Two investigators independently reviewed search results, identified appropriate studies, and extracted data using standardized spreadsheets. A random effect meta-analysis was carried out. Eleven RCTs were included with a total of 1015 patients. The incorporation of FT-DYN through SVV in surgical patients led to shorter ICU length of stay (weighted mean difference [WMD], -1.43d; 95% confidence interval [CI], -2.09 to -0.78), shorter hospital length of stay (WMD, -1.96d; 95% CI, -2.34 to -1.59), and trended toward improved mortality (odds ratio, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.30-1.03). There was a decrease in daily ICU-related costs per patient for those who received FT-DYN in the perioperative period (WMD, US$ -1619; 95% CI, -2173.68 to -1063.26). Incorporation of FT-DYN through SVV in the perioperative care of surgical ICU patients is associated with decreased ICU length of stay, hospital length of stay, and ICU costs.

Outcomes and Costs of Patients Admitted to the Intensive Care Unit Due to Accidental or Intentional Poisoning.

INTRODUCTION: Acute poisoning represents a major cause of morbidity and mortality, and many of these patients are admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). However, little is known regarding ICU costs of acute poisoning. METHODS: This was a retrospective matched database analysis of patients admitted to the ICU with acute poisoning from 2011 to 2014. It was performed in 2 ICUs within a single tertiary care hospital system. All patient information, outcomes, and costs were stored in the hospital data warehouse. Control patients were defined as randomly selected age-, sex-, severity index-, and comorbidity index-matched nonpoisoned ICU patients (1:4 matching ratio). RESULTS: A total of 8452 critically ill patients were admitted during the study period, of whom 277 had a diagnosis of acute poisoning. The mean age was 44.5 years, and the most common xenobiotics implicated were sedative hypnotics (20.2%), antidepressants (15.2%), and opioids (10.5%). Of these, 73.6% of poisonings were deemed intentional. In-hospital mortality of poisoned patients was 5.1%, compared to 11.1% for control patients (P < .01). The median ICU length of stay (LOS) for poisoned patients was 3.0 days, compared with 4.0 days for control patients (P < .01). The mean total cost for poisoned patients was CAD$18 958. Control patients had a significantly higher mean total cost of CAD$60 628 (P < .01). The xenobiotics associated with the highest costs were acetaminophen (CAD$18 585), toxic alcohols (CAD$16 771), and opioids (CAD$12 967). CONCLUSIONS: In our cohort, we confirmed the long-held belief that patients admitted to the ICU with a primary diagnosis of poisoning have a lower mortality rate, ICU LOS, and overall cost per ICU admission than nonpoisoned patients. However, poisoned patients still accrue significant daily costs, with the highest costs attributed to xenobiotics with known antidotes, such as acetaminophen, toxic alcohols, and opioids.

The incidence and prevalence of delirium across palliative care settings: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Delirium is a common and distressing neurocognitive condition that frequently affects patients in palliative care settings and is often underdiagnosed. AIM: Expanding on a 2013 review, this systematic review examines the incidence and prevalence of delirium across all palliative care settings. DESIGN: This systematic review and meta-analyses were prospectively registered with PROSPERO and included a risk of bias assessment. DATA SOURCES: Five electronic databases were examined for primary research studies published between 1980 and 2018. Studies on adult, non-intensive care and non-postoperative populations, either receiving or eligible to receive palliative care, underwent dual reviewer screening and data extraction. Studies using standardized delirium diagnostic criteria or valid assessment tools were included. RESULTS: Following initial screening of 2596 records, and full-text screening of 153 papers, 42 studies were included. Patient populations diagnosed with predominantly cancer (n = 34) and mixed diagnoses (n = 8) were represented. Delirium point prevalence estimates were 4%-12% in the community, 9%-57% across hospital palliative care consultative services, and 6%-74% in inpatient palliative care units. The prevalence of delirium prior to death across all palliative care settings (n = 8) was 42%-88%. Pooled point prevalence on admission to inpatient palliative care units was 35% (confidence interval = 0.29-0.40, n = 14). Only one study had an overall low risk of bias. Varying delirium screening and diagnostic practices were used. CONCLUSION: Delirium is prevalent across all palliative care settings, with one-third of patients delirious at the time of admission to inpatient palliative care. Study heterogeneity limits meta-analyses and highlights the future need for rigorous studies.

Comparison of outcomes and costs between adult diabetic ketoacidosis patients admitted to the ICU and step-down unit.

PURPOSE: There is wide variation in the utilization of Intensive Care Unit (ICU) beds for treatment and monitoring of adult patients with Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA). We sought to compare the outcomes and hospital costs of adult DKA patients admitted to ICUs as compared to those admitted to step-down units. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We included consecutive adult patients from two hospitals with a diagnosis of DKA. Patients were either admitted to the ICU, or a step-down unit, which has a nurse-to-patient ratio of 2:1, but does not have capability for mechanical ventilation or administration of vasoactive agents. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: We included 872 patients in the analysis. 71 (8.1%) were admitted to ICU, while 801 (91.9%) were admitted to a step-down unit. We found no difference in in-hospital mortality between patients admitted to the ICU and those admitted to the step-down unit (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 1.14, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.87-2.64). Mean total hospital costs were significantly higher for patients admitted to the ICU ($20,428 vs. $6484, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Adult DKA patients admitted to a step-down unit had comparable in-hospital mortality and lower hospital costs as compared to those admitted to the ICU.

Neuroscience Intermediate-Level Care Units Staffed by Intensivists: Clinical Outcomes and Cost Analysis.

INTRODUCTION:: With an aging population and increasing numbers of intensive care unit admissions, novel ways of providing quality care at reduced cost are required. Closed neurointensive care units improve outcomes for patients with critical neurological conditions, including decreased mortality and length of stay (LOS). Small studies have demonstrated the safety of intermediate-level units for selected patient populations. However, few studies analyze both cost and safety outcomes of these units. This retrospective study assessed clinical and cost-related outcomes in an intermediate-level neurosciences acute care unit (NACU) before and after the addition of an intensivist to the unit's care team. METHODS:: Starting in October 2011, an intensivist-led model was adopted in a 16-bed NACU unit, including daytime coverage by a dedicated intensivist. Data were obtained from all patients admitted 1 year prior to and 2 years after this intervention. Primary outcomes were LOS and hospital costs. Safety outcomes included mortality and readmissions. Descriptive and analytic statistics were calculated. Individual and total patient costs were calculated based on per-day NACU and ward cost estimates and significance measured using bootstrapping. RESULTS:: A total of 2931 patients were included over the study period. Patients were on average 59.5 years and 53% male. The most common reasons for admission were central nervous system (CNS) tumor (27.6%), ischemic stroke (27%), and subarachnoid hemorrhage (11%). Following the introduction of an intensivist, there was a significant reduction in NACU and hospital LOS, by 1 day and 3 days, respectively. There were no differences in readmissions or mortality. Adding an intensivist produced an individual cost savings of US$963 in NACU and US$2687 per patient total hospital stay. CONCLUSION:: An intensivist-led model of intermediate-level neurointensive care staffed by intensivists is safe, decreases LOS, and produces cost savings in a system increasingly strained to provide quality neurocritical care.

A Scoping Review to Map Empirical Evidence Regarding Key Domains and Questions in the Clinical Pathway of Delirium in Palliative Care.

CONTEXT: Based on the clinical care pathway of delirium in palliative care (PC), a published analytic framework (AF) formulated research questions in key domains and recommended a scoping review to identify evidence gaps. OBJECTIVES: To produce a literature map for key domains of the published AF: screening, prognosis and diagnosis, management, and the health-related outcomes. METHODS: A standard scoping review framework was used by an interdisciplinary study team of nurse- and physician-delirium researchers, an information specialist, and review methodologists to conduct the review. Knowledge user engagement provided context in refining 19 AF questions. A peer-reviewed search strategy identified citations in Medline, PsycINFO, Embase, and CINAHL databases between 1980 and 2018. Two reviewers independently screened records for inclusion using explicit study eligibility criteria for the population, design, delirium diagnosis, and investigational intent. RESULTS: Of 104 studies reporting empirical data and meeting eligibility criteria, most were conducted in patients with cancer (73.1%) and in inpatient PC units (52%). The most frequent study design was a one or more group, nonrandomized trial or cohort (67.3%). Evidence gaps were identified: delirium risk prediction; comparative effectiveness and harms of prevention, variability in delirium management across PC settings, advanced directive and substitute decision-maker input, and transition of care location; and estimating delirium reversibility. Future rigorous primary studies are required to address these gaps and preliminary concerns regarding the quality of extant literature. CONCLUSION: Substantial evidence gaps exist, providing opportunities for future research regarding the assessment, prognosis, and management of delirium in PC settings.

Considerations from the 2017 IMFAR Preconference on Measuring Meaningful Outcomes from School-Age to Adulthood.

The autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research community is increasingly considering the importance of measuring outcomes that are meaningful to individuals with ASD and their families. The 2017 IMFAR preconference aimed to gain the perspectives of how to define and measure "meaningful outcomes" from 280 participants, including people with ASD and their families, service providers, and researchers. Six themes were identified: (a) the definition of "outcome" varies by context and perspective; (b) the need to broaden the scope of what researchers measure; (c) the need for new assessment tools; (d) the need to expand data analytic methods; (e) where to focus (with emphasis on considering different developmental stages and aspects of diversity); and (f) a need for community partnerships to bridge research and daily practice. The challenge that the research community now faces is how to move the evidence base for clinical practice forward while keeping alive the divergence of views and considerations that are relevant for thinking about complex outcomes for the highly heterogeneous group of individuals with ASD. This commentary provides recommendations, with an emphasis on lifespan viewpoints that encompass individual strengths and preferences. Autism Research 2018, 11: 1446-1454. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: The 2017 IMFAR preconference aimed to gain the perspectives of how to define and measure "meaningful outcomes" from a variety of stakeholders. This commentary outlines the six themes identified from keynote and panel presentations and audience-participated discussions. Recommendations are made to emphasize perspectives that look across the lifespan and encompass individual strengths and preferences.

Characteristics, Outcomes, and Cost Patterns of High-Cost Patients in the Intensive Care Unit.

BACKGROUND: ICU care is costly, and there is a large variation in cost among patients. METHODS: This is an observational study conducted at two ICUs in an academic centre. We compared the demographics, clinical data, and outcomes of the highest decile of patients by total costs, to the rest of the population. RESULTS: A total of 7,849 patients were included. The high-cost group had a longer median ICU length of stay (26 versus 4 days, P < 0.001) and amounted to 49% of total costs. In-hospital mortality was lower in the high-cost group (21.1% versus 28.4%, P < 0.001). Fewer high-cost patients were discharged home (23.9% versus 45.2%, P < 0.001), and a large proportion were transferred to long-term care (35.1% versus 12.1%, P < 0.001). Patients with younger age or a diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage, acute respiratory failure, or complications of procedures were more likely to be high cost. CONCLUSIONS: High-cost users utilized half of the total costs. While cost is associated with LOS, other drivers include younger age or admission for respiratory failure, subarachnoid hemorrhage, or after a procedural complication. Cost-reduction interventions should incorporate strategies to optimize critical care use among these patients.

Factors associated with delayed rapid response team activation.

Delayed activation of the rapid response team (RRT) is common and has been associated with adverse outcomes. However, little is known about the factors associated with delayed activation. This was an observational study from two hospitals in Ottawa, Canada, including adult inpatients with experiencing an activation of the RRT. Data was collected between May 1, 2012 and May 31, 2016 and groups were divided between those with activation within 1 h of meeting call criteria and those with >1 h (delayed activation). The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. There were 6131 patients included in the study, of which 1441 (26.0%) experienced a delay. The reasons for RRT call were significantly different (P < 0.001) with respiratory distress (29.3% versus 24.8%), and hypotension (17.4% versus 13.2%) being more common in the delayed group, and dysrhythmias (15.9% versus 18.5%) and altered level of consciousness (13.5% versus 18.7%) being less common. RRT activation was more delayed on non-surgical services (P < 0.001). Delayed activation was associated with increased mortality (Adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.23, 95% CI 1.07-1.41), ICU admission (Adjusted OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.51-1.96), and hospital length of stay (13 versus 15 days, P < 0.001).

The impact of reducing intensive care unit length of stay on hospital costs: evidence from a tertiary care hospital in Canada.

PURPOSE: To use theoretical modelling exercises to determine the effect of reduced intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay (LOS) on total hospital costs at a Canadian centre. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cost analysis from the perspective of one tertiary teaching hospital in Canada. Cost, demographic, clinical, and LOS data were retrieved through case-costing, patient registry, and hospital abstract systems of The Ottawa Hospital Data Warehouse for all new in-patient ward (30,483) and ICU (2,239) encounters between April 2012 and March 2013. Aggregate mean daily variable direct (VD) costs for ICU vs ward encounters were summarized by admission day number, LOS, and cost centre. RESULTS: The mean daily VD cost per ICU patient was $2,472 (CAD), accounting for 67.0% of total daily ICU costs per patient and $717 for patients admitted to the ward. Variable direct cost is greatest on the first day of ICU admission ($3,708), and then decreases by 39.8% to plateau by the fifth day of admission. Reducing LOS among patients with ICU stays ≥ four days could potentially result in an annual hospital cost saving of $852,146 which represents 0.3% of total in-patient hospital costs and 1.2% of ICU costs. CONCLUSION: Reducing ICU LOS has limited cost-saving potential given that ICU costs are greatest early in the course of admission, and this study does not support the notion of reducing ICU LOS as a sole cost-saving strategy.