Cognitive profiles in pediatric unilobar vs. multilobar epilepsy.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to determine how cognitive impairment relates to the extent of the presumed epileptogenic zone in pediatric focal epilepsies. We analyzed the cognitive functions in unilobar compared to multilobar focal epilepsy patients that underwent neuropsychological testing at a tertiary epilepsy center. METHODS: We assessed cognitive functions of pediatric focal epilepsy patients with the German version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales that measures full-scale IQ and subcategories. We assessed differences in IQ and epilepsy-related variables between unilobar and multilobar epilepsy patients. RESULTS: We included 62 patients (37 unilobar, 25 multilobar), aged 10.6 ± 3.7 years. Full-scale IQ values were significantly higher in unilobar (93.6 ± 17.7, 95% CI 87.7-99.6) than in multilobar epilepsy patients (77.3 ± 17.2, 95% CI 69.3-85.0; p = 0.001). In all but one IQ subcategory (working memory), significantly higher values were measured in unilobar than in multilobar epilepsy patients. The proportion of unilobar epilepsy patients with severe cognitive impairment (8.3%) and below-average intelligence (30.5%) was lower compared to multilobar epilepsy patients (47.6% and 61.9%; p = 0.002 and p = 0.021, respectively). Epilepsy onset occurred earlier in multilobar (4.0 years, 95% CI 2.6-5.5, SD ± 3.4 years) than in unilobar epilepsy patients (7.0 years, 95% CI 5.5-8.5, SD ± 4.4 years, p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric multilobar epilepsy patients face more cognitive issues than unilobar epilepsy patients on average. Our findings should help to identify children and adolescents who are most at risk for impaired cognitive development. A limitation of our study is the simple division into unilobar and multilobar epilepsies, with no specific account being taken of etiology/epilepsy syndrome, which can have a profound effect on cognition.

Drosophila functional screening of de novo variants in autism uncovers damaging variants and facilitates discovery of rare neurodevelopmental diseases.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit an increased burden of de novo mutations (DNMs) in a broadening range of genes. While these studies have implicated hundreds of genes in ASD pathogenesis, which DNMs cause functional consequences in vivo remains unclear. We functionally test the effects of ASD missense DNMs using Drosophila through "humanization" rescue and overexpression-based strategies. We examine 79 ASD variants in 74 genes identified in the Simons Simplex Collection and find 38% of them to cause functional alterations. Moreover, we identify GLRA2 as the cause of a spectrum of neurodevelopmental phenotypes beyond ASD in 13 previously undiagnosed subjects. Functional characterization of variants in ASD candidate genes points to conserved neurobiological mechanisms and facilitates gene discovery for rare neurodevelopmental diseases.

De novo variants in neurodevelopmental disorders-experiences from a tertiary care center.

Up to 40% of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) such as intellectual disability, developmental delay, autism spectrum disorder, and developmental motor abnormalities have a documented underlying monogenic defect, primarily due to de novo variants. Still, the overall burden of de novo variants as well as novel disease genes in NDDs await discovery. We performed parent-offspring trio exome sequencing in 231 individuals with NDDs. Phenotypes were compiled using human phenotype ontology terms. The overall diagnostic yield was 49.8% (n = 115/231) with de novo variants contributing to more than 80% (n = 93/115) of all solved cases. De novo variants affected 72 different-mostly constrained-genes. In addition, we identified putative pathogenic variants in 16 genes not linked to NDDs to date. Reanalysis performed in 80 initially unsolved cases revealed a definitive diagnosis in two additional cases. Our study consolidates the contribution and genetic heterogeneity of de novo variants in NDDs highlighting trio exome sequencing as effective diagnostic tool for NDDs. Besides, we illustrate the potential of a trio-approach for candidate gene discovery and the power of systematic reanalysis of unsolved cases.

Case Report: Unilateral Sixth Cranial Nerve Palsy Associated With COVID-19 in a 2-year-old Child.

Children have been described to show neurological symptoms in acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). We present a 2-year-old boy's clinical course of unilateral acute sixth nerve palsy in the context of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Onset of the palsy in the otherwise healthy boy occurred seven days after symptoms attributed to acute infection had subsided respectively 3 weeks after onset of respiratory symptoms. SARS-CoV-2 specific IgG was detected in serum as well as in cerebrospinal fluid. The patient showed a prolonged but self-limiting course with a full recovery after three and a half months. This case illustrates in a detailed chronological sequence that sixth cranial nerve involvement may occur as post-infectious, self-limiting complication of pediatric SARS-CoV-2-infection thus expanding the neurological spectrum of symptoms for children with COVID-19. Clinicians should be aware of the possibility of post-infectious sixth nerve palsy related to SARS-CoV-2-infection particularly in view of recent respiratory tract infection or confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2-infection amongst the patient's close contacts.

Pontocerebellar hypoplasia due to bi-allelic variants in MINPP1.

Pontocerebellar hypoplasia (PCH) describes a group of rare heterogeneous neurodegenerative diseases with prenatal onset. Here we describe eight children with PCH from four unrelated families harboring the homozygous MINPP1 (NM_004897.4) variants; c.75_94del, p.(Leu27Argfs*39), c.851 C > A, p.(Ala284Asp), c.1210 C > T, p.(Arg404*), and c.992 T > G, p.(Ile331Ser). The homozygous p.(Leu27Argfs*39) change is predicted to result in a complete absence of MINPP1. The p.(Arg404*) would likely lead to a nonsense mediated decay, or alternatively, a loss of several secondary structure elements impairing protein folding. The missense p.(Ala284Asp) affects a buried, hydrophobic residue within the globular domain. The introduction of aspartic acid is energetically highly unfavorable and therefore predicted to cause a significant reduction in protein stability. The missense p.(Ile331Ser) affects the tight hydrophobic interactions of the isoleucine by the disruption of the polar side chain of serine, destabilizing the structure of MINPP1. The overlap of the above-mentioned genotypes and phenotypes is highly improbable by chance. MINPP1 is the only enzyme that hydrolyses inositol phosphates in the endoplasmic reticulum lumen and several studies support its role in stress induced apoptosis. The pathomechanism explaining the disease mechanism remains unknown, however several others genes of the inositol phosphatase metabolism (e.g., INPP5K, FIG4, INPP5E, ITPR1) are correlated with phenotypes of neurodevelopmental disorders. Taken together, we present MINPP1 as a novel autosomal recessive pontocerebellar hypoplasia gene.

Cognitive performance and behavior across idiopathic/genetic epilepsies in children and adolescents.

We investigated the cognitive and behavioral profile of three distinct groups of epilepsies with a genetic background for intergroup differences: (1) idiopathic/genetic generalized epilepsies (IGE/GGE group); (2) idiopathic focal epilepsies (IFE group); and (3) epilepsies with proven or strongly suggested monogenic or structural/numeric chromosomal etiology (genetic epilepsies, GE group). Cognitive (total IQ and subcategories) and behavioral parameters (CBCL) were assessed at the tertiary epilepsy center of the University of Munich (Germany). We used ANOVA with post-hoc Bonferroni-correction to explore significant mean differences and Fisher's exact test for significant proportional differences of intelligence impairment and behavioral problems. 126 (56 IGE/GGE, 26 IFE, 44 GE) patients were available. Total IQ was 89.0 ± 15.9 (95% CI 84.5-93.4) for IGE/GGE, 94.8 ± 18.1 (95% CI 87.3-102.3) for IFE and 76.4 ± 22.4 (95% CI 67.6-85.3) for GE (p = 0.001). The same trend was significant for all but one IQ subcategory. The rate of patients with an intelligence impairment (total IQ < 70) was higher for GE (40%) than for IGE/GGE (14%) and for IFE (7%) patients (p = 0.033). There were no significant differences between groups for behavior scores and behavioral problems. This study shows that the current ILAE classification of epilepsies with genetic etiology creates a heterogeneous group of patients with respect to cognitive performance but not behavior. These findings may help in further delineating epilepsies as regards cognitive performance, notwithstanding their closely related etiological classification.

Monogenic variants in dystonia: an exome-wide sequencing study.

BACKGROUND: Dystonia is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous condition that occurs in isolation (isolated dystonia), in combination with other movement disorders (combined dystonia), or in the context of multisymptomatic phenotypes (isolated or combined dystonia with other neurological involvement). However, our understanding of its aetiology is still incomplete. We aimed to elucidate the monogenic causes for the major clinical categories of dystonia. METHODS: For this exome-wide sequencing study, study participants were identified at 33 movement-disorder and neuropaediatric specialty centres in Austria, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Poland, Slovakia, and Switzerland. Each individual with dystonia was diagnosed in accordance with the dystonia consensus definition. Index cases were eligible for this study if they had no previous genetic diagnosis and no indication of an acquired cause of their illness. The second criterion was not applied to a subset of participants with a working clinical diagnosis of dystonic cerebral palsy. Genomic DNA was extracted from blood of participants and whole-exome sequenced. To find causative variants in known disorder-associated genes, all variants were filtered, and unreported variants were classified according to American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics guidelines. All considered variants were reviewed in expert round-table sessions to validate their clinical significance. Variants that survived filtering and interpretation procedures were defined as diagnostic variants. In the cases that went undiagnosed, candidate dystonia-causing genes were prioritised in a stepwise workflow. FINDINGS: We sequenced the exomes of 764 individuals with dystonia and 346 healthy parents who were recruited between June 1, 2015, and July 31, 2019. We identified causative or probable causative variants in 135 (19%) of 728 families, involving 78 distinct monogenic disorders. We observed a larger proportion of individuals with diagnostic variants in those with dystonia (either isolated or combined) with coexisting non-movement disorder-related neurological symptoms (100 [45%] of 222; excepting cases with evidence of perinatal brain injury) than in those with combined (19 [19%] of 98) or isolated (16 [4%] of 388) dystonia. Across all categories of dystonia, 104 (65%) of the 160 detected variants affected genes which are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. We found diagnostic variants in 11 genes not previously linked to dystonia, and propose a predictive clinical score that could guide the implementation of exome sequencing in routine diagnostics. In cases without perinatal sentinel events, genomic alterations contributed substantively to the diagnosis of dystonic cerebral palsy. In 15 families, we delineated 12 candidate genes. These include IMPDH2, encoding a key purine biosynthetic enzyme, for which robust evidence existed for its involvement in a neurodevelopmental disorder with dystonia. We identified six variants in IMPDH2, collected from four independent cohorts, that were predicted to be deleterious de-novo variants and expected to result in deregulation of purine metabolism. INTERPRETATION: In this study, we have determined the role of monogenic variants across the range of dystonic disorders, providing guidance for the introduction of personalised care strategies and fostering follow-up pathophysiological explorations. FUNDING: Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Charles University in Prague, Czech Ministry of Education, the Slovak Grant and Development Agency, the Slovak Research and Grant Agency.

Mutational and phenotypic expansion of ATP1A3-related disorders: Report of nine cases.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the ATP1A3 gene are known to be the cause of three distinct neurological syndromes including alternating hemiplegia of childhood (AHC), rapid-onset dystonia parkinsonism (RDP) and cerebellar ataxia, arefexia, pes cavus, optic atrophy and sensorineural hearing impairment (CAPOS). Recent studies have suggested the broader diversity of ATP1A3-related disorders. This study aimed to investigate the clinical spectrum in patients carrying causative mutations within the ATP1A3 gene. METHOD: The medical histories of nine unrelated patients with diverse phenotypes harboring variants in ATP1A3 were retrospectively analyzed after they were referred to a tertiary epilepsy center in one of the two different health care systems (Germany or Thailand). Clinical features, neurophysiological data, imaging results, genetic characteristics and treatments were reviewed. RESULTS: Three patients harbor novel mutations in the ATP1A3 gene. Atypical clinical features and imaging findings were observed in two cases, one with hemiplegia-hemiconvulsion-epilepsy syndrome, and the other with neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation. All nine patients presented with intellectual impairment. Alternating hemiplegia of childhood (AHC) was the most common phenotype (67%). Flunarizine and topiramate led to symptom reduction in 83% and 25% of AHC cases administered, respectively. CONCLUSION: The present case series expands the clinical and genetic spectrum of ATP1A3-related disorders.

ATP1A3-related epilepsy: Report of seven cases and literature-based analysis of treatment response.

ATP1A3 related disease is a clinically heterogeneous condition currently classified as alternating hemiplegia of childhood, rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism and cerebellar ataxia, areflexia, pes cavus, optic atrophy, and sensorineural hearing loss. Recently, it has become apparent that a remarkably large subgroup is suffering from often difficult-to-treat epilepsy. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence and efficacy of commonly used anti-epileptic-drugs (AEDs) in patients with ATP1A3 related seizures. Therefore, we performed a retrospective study of patients in combination with a systematic literature-based review. Inclusion criteria were: verified ATP1A3 mutation, seizures and information about AED treatment. The literature review yielded records for 188 epileptic ATP1A3 patients. For 14/188 cases, information about anti-epileptic treatment was available. Combined with seven unpublished records of ATP1A3 patients, a sample size of 21 patients was reached. Most used AED were levetiracetam (n = 9), phenobarbital (n = 8), valproic acid (n = 7), and topiramate (n = 5). Seizure reduction was reported for 57% of patients (n = 12). No individual AEDs used (either alone or combined) had a success rate over 50%. There was no significant difference in the response rate between various AEDs. Ketogenic diet was effective in 2/4 patients. 43% of patients (n = 9) did not show any seizure relief. Even though Epilepsy is a significant clinical issue in ATP1A3 patients, only a minority of publications provide any information about patients' anti-epileptic treatment. The findings of treatment effectiveness in only 57% (or lower) of patients, and the non-existence of a clear first-line AED in ATP1A3 related epilepsy stresses the need for further research.

Safety and efficacy of mTOR inhibitor treatment in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex under 2 years of age - a multicenter retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a multisystem disease with prominent neurologic manifestations such as epilepsy, cognitive impairment and autism spectrum disorder. mTOR inhibitors have successfully been used to treat TSC-related manifestations in older children and adults. However, data on their safety and efficacy in infants and young children are scarce. The objective of this study is to assess the utility and safety of mTOR inhibitor treatment in TSC patients under the age of 2 years. RESULTS: A total of 17 children (median age at study inclusion 2.4 years, range 0-6; 12 males, 5 females) with TSC who received early mTOR inhibitor therapy were studied. mTOR inhibitor treatment was started at a median age of 5 months (range 0-19 months). Reasons for initiation of treatment were cardiac rhabdomyomas (6 cases), subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (SEGA, 5 cases), combination of cardiac rhabdomyomas and SEGA (1 case), refractory epilepsy (4 cases) and disabling congenital focal lymphedema (1 case). In all cases everolimus was used. Everolimus therapy was overall well tolerated. Adverse events were classified according to the Common Terminology Criteria of Adverse Events (CTCAE, Version 5.0). Grade 1-2 adverse events occurred in 12 patients and included mild transient stomatitis (2 cases), worsening of infantile acne (1 case), increases of serum cholesterol and triglycerides (4 cases), changes in serum phosphate levels (2 cases), increase of cholinesterase (2 cases), transient neutropenia (2 cases), transient anemia (1 case), transient lymphopenia (1 case) and recurrent infections (7 cases). No grade 3-4 adverse events were reported. Treatment is currently continued in 13/17 patients. Benefits were reported in 14/17 patients and included decrease of cardiac rhabdomyoma size and improvement of arrhythmia, decrease of SEGA size, reduction of seizure frequency and regression of congenital focal lymphedema. Despite everolimus therapy, two patients treated for intractable epilepsy are still experiencing seizures and another one treated for SEGA showed no volume reduction. CONCLUSION: This retrospective multicenter study demonstrates that mTOR inhibitor treatment with everolimus is safe in TSC patients under the age of 2 years and shows beneficial effects on cardiac manifestations, SEGA size and early epilepsy.

Childhood-Onset Epileptic Encephalopathy Associated With Isolated Focal Cortical Dysplasia and a Novel TSC1 Germline Mutation.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal-dominant inheritable neurocutaneous disease due to mutations within the TSC1 and TSC2 genes. Many patients present with West syndrome, a severe epilepsy syndrome characterized by the triad of infantile spasms, an interictal electroencephalogram (EEG) pattern termed hypsarrhythmia (continuous slow activity with an amplitude higher than 300 µV and multiregional spikes/polyspikes/sharp waves) and developmental regression. In this study, we report on a previously healthy patient with positive family history of epilepsy with new-onset epileptic encephalopathy at the age of 9 years. Clinical signs alone were not sufficient to establish the diagnosis of TSC but epilepsy panel screening revealed a novel frameshift mutation (c.90delA; p.Glu31Argfs*12) within the TSC1 gene. Segregation gene analysis detected the same mutation in the mother. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies from the index patient and his mother revealed a similar pattern of isolated subcortical white matter lesions resembling most likely focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) type IIb. In summary, in these 2 related patients, a novel TSC1 frameshift mutation was associated with an isolated FCD type IIb in the absence of further CNS abnormalities usually encountered in patients with TSC, fostering our understanding of the broad mutation spectra in the TSC1 gene and the close relationship between cortical tubers and FCD type IIb.

Primary versus secondary headache in children: a frequent diagnostic challenge in clinical routine.

A sensitive and specific triage of patients with primary or secondary headache is a major concern in evaluating pediatric headache patients. History and physical examination are the major tools for differentiating primary headache disorders from symptomatic headaches caused by defined pathologies. If the criteria of the International Headache Society for a primary headache disorder are met, no further investigations are necessary. However, physicians should be familiar with subtle signs in history and physical examination that raise suspicion of intracranial pathology. These features, also named "red flags" and "relatively red flags," are outlined in detail in this review. Any red flag should prompt neuroimaging. In case of relatively red flags, a more restrained approach can be appropriate depending on the individual setting. Excessive concerns of patients and parents regarding an underlying pathology can constitute an indication for neuroimaging. Offering neuroimaging implicates the important issues of incidental findings and of "false reassurance." These risks should be discussed with patients and parents before the investigation. In any pediatric headache patient, regular clinical reevaluations should be warranted, even if neuroimaging is normal. The value of clinical follow-up examinations for a reasonable and reliable assessment of the patients cannot be overestimated.