Biosecurity implementation on large-scale poultry farms in Europe: A qualitative interview study with farmers.

Biosecurity is an essential tool for rearing healthy animals. Biosecurity measures (BMs) are well known in poultry production, but it is difficult to assess actual implementation on farms. The aims of this qualitative study were (1) to provide an overview of biosecurity implementation according to poultry farmers in Europe; and (2) to better understand the reported reasons and potential obstacles for not implementing the measures. In seven European Union Member States, 192 farmers (118 under contract with a company and 68 independents) working in seven different categories of poultry production were interviewed on 62 BMs to determine the frequency of implementation and the reasons for non-implementation. Most of the replies (n = 7791) concerning BM implementation were reported by the farmers as "always" implemented (81%), statistically higher for breeders (87%) and layers (82%) and lower for independent farms versus farms under contract with a company (79.5% and 82.5%, respectively). Regardless the poultry production category, the most frequently implemented BMs declared by the farmers were daily surveillance of birds, rodent control and feed storage protection. Standard hygiene practices were also mentioned as high-implementation measures for most production categories, with some deficiencies, such as rendering tank disinfection after each collection and, for meat poultry, disinfection of the feed silo and bacterial control of house cleaning and disinfection between each cycle. The entry of vehicles and individuals onto poultry farms, especially during critical points of eggs collection for breeders and layers, as well as the presence of other animals, such as the "all in/all out" practice, particularly in layers and ducks, were also reported as the least commonly practiced measures. The main reasons for not implementing the measures (n = 1683 replies) were low awareness and poor knowledge of the expected benefits of biosecurity ("no known advantages" 14%, and "not useful" 12%), the lack of training ("not enough training" 5% and "advice" 7%), lack of time (19%), and financial aspects (17%). Despite the good overall biosecurity mentioned by the farmers, these findings highlight certain deficiencies, suggesting room for improvement and the need for targeted and tailored support of poultry farmers in Europe.

Monitoring biosecurity in poultry production: an overview of databases reporting biosecurity compliance from seven European countries.

Compliance with required on-farm biosecurity practices reduces the risk of contamination and spread of zoonotic and economically important diseases. With repeating avian influenza epidemics in the poultry industry, the need to monitor and improve the overall level of biosecurity is increasing. In practice, biosecurity compliance is assessed by various actors (e.g., academic, private and public institutions), and the results of such assessments may be recorded and gathered in databases which are seldom shared or thoroughly analyzed. This study aimed to provide an inventory of databases related to the assessment of biosecurity in poultry farms in seven major poultry-producing European countries to highlight challenges and opportunities associated with biosecurity data collection, sharing, and use. The institutions in charge of these databases were contacted and interviewed using a structured questionnaire to gather information on the main characteristics of the databases and the context of their implementation. A total of 20 databases were identified, covering the gamut of poultry species and production types. Most databases were linked to veterinary health authorities or academia, and to a lesser extent interbranch organizations. Depending on the institutions in charge, the databases serve various purposes, from providing advice to enforcing regulations. The quality of the biosecurity data collected is believed to be quite reliable, as biosecurity is mostly assessed by trained farm advisors or official veterinarians and during a farm visit. Some of the databases are difficult to analyze and/or do not offer information concerning which biosecurity measures are most or least respected. Moreover, some key biosecurity practices are sometimes absent from certain databases. Although the databases serve a variety of purposes and cover different production types, each with specific biosecurity features, their analysis should help to improve the surveillance of biosecurity in the poultry sector and provide evidence on the benefits of biosecurity.

Towards a Better Use of Antimicrobials on Farms: Insights from a Participatory Approach in the French Pig and Poultry Sectors.

Despite the strong decrease in antimicrobial use in the French poultry and pig sectors over the last decade, room for improvement remains. A participatory approach was set up in France, involving representatives of veterinarians, the pig and poultry industries, technical institutes, the French Ministry of Agriculture, and researchers, to further improve how antimicrobials are used on farms. By successively defining a shared, long-term vision of future antimicrobial use on farms, identifying lock-in mechanisms impeding this future vision from being realized, and articulating practical questions on how to move in the desired direction, the group rapidly reached a consensus. The results highlight the need for consensual standardized monitoring tools that would allow farmers and veterinarians to jointly monitor the health, welfare, antimicrobial resistance, and antimicrobial use on farms. Other results relate to better communication and training for citizens regarding animal health, animal welfare, and proper antimicrobial use; some benefits but also counterproductive effects of antibiotic-free labels that imperil animal health and welfare; the economic competitiveness of farms on international markets; and the economic sustainability of farm animal veterinary practices. These results call for a concerted way to produce tools for farmers and veterinarians and the broader involvement of other food sector actors.

Natural and Experimental Persistence of Highly Pathogenic H5 Influenza Viruses in Slurry of Domestic Ducks, with or without Lime Treatment.

Infections by A/H5 and A/H7 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) can cause acute disease and are therefore notifiable in poultry and wild birds. During winter 2015-2016, several cases of infection caused by highly pathogenic (HP) AIVs belonging to the A/H5N1, A/H5N2, and A/H5N9 subtypes were detected in southwestern France. Throughout winter 2016-2017, several cases of infections caused mainly by A/H5N8 HP AIV (A/goose/GD/1/1996, clade 2.3.4.4) were detected across Europe. On both occasions, the viruses were widely detected on palmiped farms in France. This study was designed to evaluate the persistence of A/H5 HP AIV in slurry from various duck productions. This was achieved (i) in the laboratory setting by artificially spiking four AIV-free slurry samples with known amounts of A/H5N9 HP AIV and monitoring virus infectivity, with or without lime treatment to achieve pH 10 or pH 12, and (ii) by sampling slurry tanks on five naturally A/H5N8 HP-contaminated farms. Experimental results in artificially spiked slurry suggested virus survival for 4 weeks in slurry from Muscovy or Pekin duck breeders and for 2 weeks in slurry from ducks for foie gras production during the assisted-feeding period, without lime treatment. Persistence of infectious A/H5N9 HP AIV in all slurry samples after lime treatment at pH 10 or pH 12 was less than 1 week. The A/H5N8 HP AIV persisted in naturally contaminated untreated slurry for 7 weeks. The results obtained provide experimental support for the 60-day storage period without treatment or the 7-day interval after lime treatment defined in French regulations for slurry sanitization.IMPORTANCE From November 2015 to July 2017, two successive episodes of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HP AIVs) infections occurred on poultry farms in France, mostly in domestic ducks raised for foie gras production in southwestern France. During the two epizootics, epidemiological investigations were carried out on infected farms and control and biosafety measures were implemented in association with surveillance in order to stop the spread of the viruses. Effluents are known to be an important factor in environmental dissemination of viruses, and suitable effluent management is needed to help prevent the spread of epizootics to other farms or pathogen persistence at the farm level. The present study was therefore designed to assess how long infectious A/H5 HP AIVs can persist in naturally or experimentally contaminated fecal slurry samples from ducks, with or without sanitization by lime treatment.

Impact of colistin sulfate treatment of broilers on the presence of resistant bacteria and resistance genes in stored or composted manure.

The application of manure may result in contamination of the environment with antimicrobials, antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, resistance genes and plasmids. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the administration of colistin and of manure management on (i) the presence of colistin-resistant Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and (ii) the prevalence of various antimicrobial resistance genes in feces and in composted or stored manure. One flock of chickens was treated with colistin at the recommended dosage and a second flock was kept as an untreated control. Samples of feces, litter and stored or composted manure from both flocks were collected for isolation and determination of the colistin-susceptibility of E. coli, K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa and quantification of genes coding for resistance to different antimicrobials. The persistence of plasmids in stored or composted manure from colistin-treated broilers was also evaluated by plasmid capturing experiments. Results revealed that colistin administration to chickens had no apparent impact on the antimicrobial resistance of the dominant Enterobacteriaceae and P. aeruginosa populations in the chicken gut. Composting stimulated an apparently limited decrease in genes coding for resistance to different antimicrobial families. Importantly, it was shown that even after six weeks of composting or storage, plasmids carrying antimicrobial resistance genes could still be transferred to a recipient E. coli. In conclusion, composting is insufficient to completely eliminate the risk of spreading antimicrobial resistance through chicken manure.

Indirect detection of photosensitizer ex vivo.

Photodynamic therapy induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within tissues exposed to laser light after administration of a sensitizer. In the context of continuing clinical and commercial development of chemicals with sensitizing properties, a minimally invasive assay is needed to determine the tissue kinetics of fluorescent or non-fluorescent photoreactive drugs. The level of ROS was determined ex vivo from 1 mm3 biopsy samples using 2'-7' dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFH-DA), a fluorescent probe which was converted into highly fluorescent dichlorofluorescein (DCF) in the presence of ROS. This assay was tested on meta(tetrahydroxyphenyl)chlorin (m-THPC, FOSCAN), a powerful and fluorescent sensitizer, and bacteriochlorophyll derivative WST09 (TOOKAD), a near-infrared absorbing sensitizer that is only slightly fluorescent. In conjunction with the ROS assay, the tissue accumulation of m-THPC was determined on biopsy samples using an optic fibre spectrofluorometer (OFS). DCF fluorescence was proportional to the level of oxidation induced by horseradish peroxidase used as a control and to the concentration (range: 0-5 microg x ml(-1)) of both selected photosensitizers irradiated in a tube together with DCFH. Regardless of the organ studied, an excellent correlation was found between fluorescence measurement by OFS and ROS determination for m-THPC. m-THPC (2 mg x kg(-1) iv) accumulation in tumour tissues was best after 48 h, and the best signal was obtained in liver. With non-fluorescent WST09 (2 mg x kg(-1)), ROS determination showed the best tumour uptake 48 h after injection, with a tumour/muscle ratio of 5.4. The ROS assay appears to be feasible for determining sensitizer concentration in regular grip biopsy tissue samples.