Potential use of pinenes to improve localized insecticide injections targeting the western drywood termite (Blattodea: Kalotermitidae).

The western drywood termite, Incisitermes minor (Hagen), causes significant economic damage to wood structures in the United States of America, especially California. When infestation is not widespread, localized insecticide injections may be useful for remedial control. However, the extensive gallery structure of drywood termites and their tendency to aggregate at specific parts of the galleries can impact the efficacy of localized insecticide injection. Chemicals that attract termites from a distance may improve the localized insecticide injection by increasing the number of termites contacting the insecticide residues. Two volatile terpenes, α-pinene and ß-pinene, commonly found in many coniferous timber trees, were applied to artificial termite galleries to determine if termites were attracted from their original aggregation site. Furthermore, we examined if adding these pinenes would improve the overall efficacy of some insecticide products for drywood termite control. Behavioral assay results showed that the treatment with pinenes increased the likelihood that drywood termites would leave their original aggregation site and contact the treated part of the gallery. When tested with the pesticide products applied in a small area away from the termite aggregation, ß-pinene significantly accelerated the time course of mortality for the aqueous fipronil. The efficacy of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate dust was not influenced by the addition of pinenes. Implications for drywood termite management and future research directions are discussed.

Toxicity of isocycloseram, an isoxazoline insecticide, against laboratory and field-collected German cockroaches (Blattodea: Ectobiidae).

Isocycloseram is a new insecticide in the isoxazoline class that targets insect GABA-gated chloride channels. In this study, we evaluated a cockroach gel bait formulation containing 1% isocycloseram against a susceptible strain (UCR) and 5 field-collected strains (WM, RG386, Ryan, CDR, and SY) of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae), and compared it with several commercial insecticide baits in the laboratory. Using the Ebeling choice box method, we also tested a residual deposit of an SC formulation of isocycloseram against the UCR, RG386, and Ryan strains. The isocycloseram bait was among the fastest-performing treatments against adult males (mean survival time: 0.9-2.7 days) and mixed stages and sexes (mean survival time: 1.4-5.4 days) across all strains. Secondary transfer effects of the bait were demonstrated in the UCR strain by exposing new adult males to individuals killed by direct bait treatment. Physiological resistance was not detected in the WM, CDR, and RG386 strains with topical treatment of a diagnostic dose (3× LD95) of isocycloseram developed using the UCR strain. However, topical assays revealed resistance ratios (RR50) of 1.6 and 3.0× in the Ryan and SY strains, respectively. The performance of a 0.05% isocycloseram residual application against the Ryan strain was improved with the addition of piperonyl butoxide.

The Emergence and Sustainability of Urban Entomology.

Urban entomology is the study of arthropod and other pests of the urban environment. It has gained worldwide recognition as a distinct discipline. Its origin is associated with Walter Ebeling's publication Urban Entomology in 1975. Urbanization, invasive pests, increased demand for pest management services, and changes in legislation collided in the 1970s to create a need for research and extension activities worldwide. This resulted in urban entomology as a discipline and, within two decades, its national and international recognition. In this review, we present the factors that led to the development of urban entomology and how they have shaped its current meaning. As urbanization intensifies and the global economy increases, the demands for urban pest management will continue to grow. We discuss how these future challenges may shape and alter the discipline.

Oral toxicity of an artificial sweetener sucralose on the German cockroach (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) and its impact on water balance and gut microbiome.

Artificial or non-nutritive sweeteners are indigestible by most animals. Some sweeteners are orally toxic to insects and have received recent interest as potential safe insecticides due to their low mammalian toxicity. In this study, we investigated the oral toxicity of sucralose on insecticide-susceptible and resistant German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.). In a nonchoice test, we evaluated 5, 10, and 20% sucralose solutions. Depending on the cockroach strains, mean mortality ranged from 62.5 to 92.5%, 15 to 55%, and 2.5 to 27.5% for 20, 10, and 5% sucralose, respectively. Next, we measured the impact of a 20% sucralose treatment on water loss rates in the cockroach strains. All strains lost 23.0-30.29% of body water by 6 d. Dehydrated cockroaches were more prone to be killed by sucralose than nondehydrated ones. Lastly, we evaluated the effect of 20% sucralose treatment on gut bacterial composition and found the diversity of gut bacteria in treated cockroaches was significantly reduced after 3 days, implicating a rapid change in the alimentary environment.

The impact of selenium on insects.

Selenium, a naturally occurring metalloid, is an essential trace element for many higher organisms, including humans. Humans primarily become exposed to selenium by ingesting food products containing trace amounts of selenium compounds. Although essential in these small amounts, selenium exhibits toxic effects at higher doses. Previous studies investigating the effects on insects of order Blattodea, Coleoptera, Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, and Orthoptera revealed impacts on mortality, growth, development, and behavior. Nearly every study examining selenium toxicity has shown that insects are negatively affected by exposure to selenium in their food. However, there were no clear patterns of toxicity between insect orders or similarities between insect species within families. At this time, the potential for control will need to be determined on a species-by-species basis. We suspect that the multiple modes of action, including mutation-inducing modification of important amino acids as well as impacts on microbiome composition, influence this variability. There are relatively few studies that have examined the potential effects of selenium on beneficial insects, and the results have ranged from increased predation (a strong positive effect) to toxicity resulting in reduced population growth or even the effective elimination of the natural enemies (more common negative effects). As a result, in those pest systems where selenium use is contemplated, additional research may be necessary to ascertain if selenium use is compatible with key biological control agents. This review explores selenium as a potential insecticide and possible future directions for research.

Insecticide resistance and its potential mechanisms in field-collected German cockroaches (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) from Thailand.

We investigated insecticide resistance profiles of field populations of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), collected from central regions of Thailand. Seven strains (PW, RB, MTH, MTS, TL, AY, and SP) were evaluated with diagnostic doses (DD; 3 × LD95 generated from a susceptible strain) of deltamethrin, fipronil, and imidacloprid using topical assays and compared with a susceptible strain (DMSC). Results showed fipronil (2-27% mortality), deltamethrin (16-58% mortality), and imidacloprid (15-75% mortality) resistance in the field strains. Synergism studies with piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF) in combination with the DD of insecticides significantly increased (P < 0.05) mortality of the test insects of the field strains suggesting the involvement of P450 monooxygenase and esterase pathways of detoxification. Gel bait evaluations demonstrated that all field-collected strains were resistant to Maxforce Forte (0.05% fipronil), Maxforce Fusion (2.15% imidacloprid), and Advion Cockroach Gel Bait (0.6% indoxacarb) with mean survival times ranging from 1.87-8.27, 1.77-11.72, and 1.19-3.56 days, respectively. Molecular detection revealed that the Rdl mutation was completely homozygous in all field-collected strains except in the PW strain. Field-collected strains were screened for 3 voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) mutations associated with pyrethroid resistance. The L993F mutation was present in 5 strains, but no C764R and E434K mutations were detected.

The Potential of Fluralaner as a Bait Toxicant to Control Pest Yellowjackets in California.

The western yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica (Saussure), is an important seasonal pest of recreational and outdoor venues in the western United States. Its propensity to scavenge food increases the likelihood of stinging incidences. Control measures are limited to intensive trapping and treating subterranean nests. The only toxicant registered for baiting in the US is esfenvalerate, which is ineffective. The objective of this study was to determine the potential of the isoxazoline fluralaner as a bait toxicant. With microsatellite genotyping, a minimum of 27 different colonies were shown to forage at a single monitoring site. Some colonies disappeared after baiting, and new colonies were detected. The implications for baiting and monitoring are discussed. Minced chicken and hydrogel baits containing 0.022% and 0.045% fluralaner significantly reduced foraging yellowjackets. Several bait applications covering large areas will be necessary to provide long-term control.

Laboratory evaluations of biodegradable boric acid hydrogel baits for the control of Argentine ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Due to their mutualistic relationship with plant pests, the Argentine ant is considered a major pest in subtropical fruit orchards and vineyards. Besides insecticide sprays, liquid baiting has been demonstrated as an effective method to suppress the Argentine ant populations. To improve the economic feasibility of liquid baiting, hydrogel materials have been recently tested as a carrier for liquid baits containing various insecticidal active ingredients. Here, we tested boric acid as a toxicant in the aqueous sugar bait delivered in a biodegradable calcium alginate hydrogel. Laboratory tests demonstrated that boric acid (1%) liquid bait incorporated in the calcium alginate hydrogel effectively killed Argentine ant workers. Potassium sorbate (0.25%) added to the liquid bait as a preservative did not impact the efficacy of boric acid even though it significantly reduced the degree of swelling of the hydrogel beads in the bait solution. Testing with 2-month-old bait suggested that long-term storage might impact bait efficacy even with potassium sorbate preservative.

Genetic Evidence for Multiple Invasions of Coptotermes formosanus (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) in California.

New infestations of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae), were discovered in southern California, namely in Rancho Santa Fe and La Mesa (San Diego County) and Highland Park (Los Angeles County) in 2021. We investigated whether these new infestations were related to the previous infestations in La Mesa (2018) and Canyon Lake, Riverside County (2020). We used two mitochondrial genes (COI and COII) and seven polymorphic microsatellite markers to infer the genetic relationship between southern California colonies and their breeding systems. The samples collected from seven localities belonged to five colonies (inter-colony distances ranged from ~160 m to 185 km, with an average of 97 km). Of these five colonies, two were simple families, and three were extended families. Structure analyses of microsatellite genotypes grouped the termite samples into three distinct genetic clusters, suggesting at least three independent introduction events in southern California.

Combined metabolic and target-site resistance mechanisms confer fipronil and deltamethrin resistance in field-collected German cockroaches (Blattodea: Ectobiidae).

Despite insecticide resistance issues, pyrethroids and fipronil have continued to be used extensively to control the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) for more than two decades. We evaluated the physiological insecticide resistance in five German cockroach populations collected from 2018 to 2020 and measured the extent of metabolic detoxification and target-site insensitivity resistance mechanisms. Topically applied doses of the 3 x LD95 of deltamethrin, fipronil, DDT, or dieldrin of a susceptible strain (UCR, Diagnostic Dose) failed to cause >23% mortality, and the 10 x LD95 of deltamethrin or fipronil failed to cause >53% mortality. All field-collected strains possessed a combination of metabolic and target-site insensitivity mechanisms that cause reduced susceptibility. Elevated activities of esterase and glutathione S-transferase were measured, and the synergists piperonyl butoxide or S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate increased topical mortality up to 100% for deltamethrin and 93% for fipronil 10 x LD95. The target-site mutations L993F of the para-homologous sodium channel and A302S of the GABA-gated chloride channel associated with pyrethroid and fipronil resistance, respectively, were found at ~80-100% frequency in field populations. Pyrethroid and fipronil spray formulations also were ineffective in a choice box assay against field-collected strains suggesting that these treatments would fail to control cockroaches under field conditions.

Reduced Susceptibility Towards Commercial Bait Insecticides in Field German Cockroach (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) Populations From California.

Gel bait insecticides have been extensively used to manage the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae), but issues with reduced effectiveness of such formulations are becoming increasingly common. We collected five field strains of German cockroaches in California and evaluated them against five commercial bait products [Maxforce FC Magnum (0.05% fipronil), Maxforce Impact (1% clothianidin), Advion Evolution (0.6% indoxacarb), Optigard (0.1% emamectin benzoate) and Siege (2% hydramethylnon)]. Increased survivorship and incomplete mortality towards all baits were recorded in the field strains. We assessed susceptibility to the active ingredients fipronil, clothianidin, indoxacarb, abamectin, hydramethylnon, and deltamethrin using topical bioassays with diagnostic doses (3 × LD95 and 10 × LD95) developed from the UCR susceptible strain. Low mortality was registered when tested with the 3 × LD95's of deltamethrin (0%), fipronil (0-3%), and clothianidin (13-27%); low to moderate mortality when treated with the 3 × LD95 of indoxacarb (13-63%), and moderate to high mortality after treatment with the 3 × LD95 of abamectin (80-100%) and hydramethylnon (70-83%). The mortality of all strains remained low after treatment with the 10 × LD99 of deltamethrin (0-20%) and low to moderate with fipronil (20-70%). We found negative correlations (P < 0.05) between Advion Evolution mean survival time and indoxacarb 10 × LD95 mortality and between Maxforce Impact and clothianidin 10 × LD95 mortality. These findings demonstrate multiple resistance towards all tested commercial bait insecticides except Optigard, suggesting the effectiveness of avermectin products in resistance management programs.

Development and Demonstration of Low-Impact IPM Strategy to Control Argentine Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Urban Residential Settings.

Argentine ants are one of the most common nuisance pest ants treated by pest management professionals (PMPs) in southern and western urban residential areas of the United States. Two new technologies (spraying with a pheromone adjuvant and using a biodegradable hydrogel bait delivery method) were used to develop a unique low-impact integrated pest management (IPM) protocol for Argentine ants in urban residential settings. The IPM protocol included a one-time perimeter spray treatment with 0.03% fipronil (mixed with a pheromone adjuvant) at the beginning of the ant season to achieve a quick knockdown. The initial spray application was followed by a biodegradable hydrogel baiting with 1% boric acid as a maintenance treatment. This low-impact IPM protocol was compared with two other conventional methods: (1) one initial fipronil application and one pyrethroid spray application for maintenance, or (2) one initial fipronil application and one essential oil insecticide spray application for maintenance. Based on Argentine ant foraging activity, the protocols were compared for their control efficacy. Insecticide use information and treatment time were also recorded and compared among different treatment protocols. Our results provided empirical data to support the effectiveness and economic feasibility of the low-impact IPM protocol for managing Argentine ants in urban residential settings.

Recent Advancements in the Control of Cat Fleas.

With the advent of imidacloprid and fipronil spot-on treatments and the oral ingestion of lufenuron, the strategies and methods to control cat fleas dramatically changed during the last 25 years. New innovations and new chemistries have highlighted this progress. Control strategies are no longer based on the tripartite approach of treating the pet, the indoor environment, and outdoors. The ability of modern therapies to break the cat flea life cycle and prevent reproduction has allowed for the stand-alone treatments that are applied or given to the pet. In doing so, we have not only controlled the cat flea, but we have prevented or reduced the impact of many of the diseases associated with ectoparasites and endoparasites of cats and dogs. This review provides an update of newer and non-conventional approaches to control cat fleas.

Hydrogels: From Controlled Release to a New Bait Delivery for Insect Pest Management.

Here, we review the literature on the development and application of hydrogel compounds for insect pest management. Researchers have used hydrogel compounds for the past few decades to achieve the controlled release of various contact insecticides, but in recent years, hydrogel compounds have also been used to absorb and deliver targeted concentrations of toxicants within a liquid bait to manage insect pests. The highly absorbent hydrogel acts as a controlled-release formulation that keeps the liquid bait available and palatable to the target pests. This review discusses the use of various types of hydrogel compounds in pest management based on different environmental settings (e.g., agricultural, urban, and natural areas), pest systems (e.g., different taxa), and modes of insecticide delivery (e.g., spray vs bait). Due to their unique physicochemical properties, hydrogel compounds have great potential to be developed into new and efficacious pest management strategies with minimal environmental impact. We will also discuss the future research and development of hydrogels in this review.

Synergism of Adulticides and Insect Growth Regulators Against Larval Cat Fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

The use of topical and oral therapies on pets has revolutionized the control of cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché). Herein, we tested the biological activity of two adulticides, fipronil and imidacloprid, and the insect growth regulators (IGRs), methoprene and pyriproxyfen. The LC50's of fipronil, imidacloprid, methoprene, and pyriproxyfen in larval rearing medium for second and third instars were 1.13, 0.73, 0.35, and 0.23 ppm, respectively. Combinations of imidacloprid and methoprene and pyriproxyfen were synergistic. The combination indices (CIs) at an effective dose (ED95) of imidacloprid:methoprene (Im:Meth) were 0.54, 0.44, 0.66, 0.73, and 0.62 for Im1:Meth1, Im5:Meth1, Im10:Meth1, Im20:Meth1, and Im40:Meth1, respectively. Similarly, the CIs of imidacloprid:pyriproxyfen (Im:Pyri) at an ED95 were 0.73 and 0.50 for Im1:Pyri1 and Im5:Pyri1, respectively. Combinations of fipronil:methoprene (Fip:Meth) provided variable results with Fip1:Meth1 being antagonistic (CI = 1.61). Combinations at 5:1, 10:1, and 20:1 at an ED95 were moderately synergistic. Combinations of Fip:Pyri at 1:1 were antagonistic at an ED95 with a CI of 2.87. When the combinations were reversed, neither the imidacloprid nor fipronil synergized either IGR. The dose response indices (DRI) for both Im:Meth and Im:Pyri indicate that the concentrations of the combinations could be significantly reduced and still be as effective as imidacloprid alone. Certain combinations of adulticides and IGRs were synergistic against immature fleas.

Evaluation of a Hydrogel Matrix for Baiting Western Yellowjacket (Vespidae: Hymenoptera).

Baiting is an effective method to manage Vespula spp. yellowjacket (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) populations without having to locate and treat nests. Here, we assessed the utility of a commercially available polyacrylamide hydrogel as an alternative bait material for yellowjacket baiting. The experimental bait (hereafter referred to as 'hydrogel bait') consisted of diluted chicken juice (from canned chicken meat) and fipronil (0.025%, wt/wt) absorbed into granular polyacrylamide hydrogel particles. Three separate 24-h baiting trials were conducted at two different field sites with the western yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica (Saussare), as the target species. The monitoring data from pre- and posttreatment periods indicated that baiting with polyacrylamide hydrogel baits provided ≈74-96% reduction in the foraging activity of V. pensylvanica during its active season. In addition to their ability to absorb large quantities of aqueous bait containing phagostimulants and toxicants, the hydrogels' tactile resemblance to fresh meat upon hydration makes them a promising option as a non-meat material for delivering small amounts of insecticides to yellowjacket populations in a highly targeted manner.

The Biology and Ecology of Cat Fleas and Advancements in Their Pest Management: A Review.

The cat flea Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché) is the most important ectoparasite of domestic cats and dogs worldwide. It has been two decades since the last comprehensive review concerning the biology and ecology of C. f. felis and its management. Since then there have been major advances in our understanding of the diseases associated with C. f. felis and their implications for humans and their pets. Two rickettsial diseases, flea-borne spotted fever and murine typhus, have been identified in domestic animal populations and cat fleas. Cat fleas are the primary vector of Bartonella henselae (cat scratch fever) with the spread of the bacteria when flea feces are scratched in to bites or wounds. Flea allergic dermatitis (FAD) common in dogs and cats has been successfully treated and tapeworm infestations prevented with a number of new products being used to control fleas. There has been a continuous development of new products with novel chemistries that have focused on increased convenience and the control of fleas and other arthropod ectoparasites. The possibility of feral animals serving as potential reservoirs for flea infestations has taken on additional importance because of the lack of effective environmental controls in recent years. Physiological insecticide resistance in C. f. felis continues to be of concern, especially because pyrethroid resistance now appears to be more widespread. In spite of their broad use since 1994, there is little evidence that resistance has developed to many of the on-animal or oral treatments such as fipronil, imidacloprid or lufenuron. Reports of the perceived lack of performance of some of the new on-animal therapies have been attributed to compliance issues and their misuse. Consequentially, there is a continuing need for consumer awareness of products registered for cats and dogs and their safety.

Intrinsic Activity of IGRs Against Larval Cat Fleas.

Insect growth regulators (IGRs) such as lufenuron, methoprene, and pyriproxyfen have been important tools in the integrated pest management of cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché), for the past two decades. Other IGRs have been registered for the control of termite, dipteran, and lepidopterous pests including chlorfluazuron, cyromazine, dicyclanil, and precocene I, but have been not tested against C. felis. The intrinsic activity of IGRs was determined by exposing larvae to treated larval rearing media. The LC50s of chlorfluazuron, cyromazine, dicyclanil, lufenuron, and precocene I against cat fleas were 0.19, 2.66, 0.04, 0.20, and 10.97 ppm, respectively. The LC95s of chlorfluazuron, cyromazine, dicyclanil, lufenuron, and precocene I were 0.78, 51.24, 0.30, 0.62, and 175.05, respectively. The regression slopes of chlorfluazuron and lufenuron were 2.65 ± 0.24 and 3.40 ± 0.45 (SEM), respectively, and considerably steeper than the other IGRs tested (1.51 to 1.74). The intrinsic activity of IGRs tested is summarized as dicyclanil > chlorfluazuron = lufenuron > cyromazine > precocene I. The responses of the laboratory UCR strain to these IGRs can serve as a baseline of susceptibility until a more susceptible cat flea strain is found. Chlorfluazuron and dicyclanil look like promising candidates against cat fleas.

Insecticide Resistance in Fleas.

Fleas are the major ectoparasite of cats, dogs, and rodents worldwide and potential vectors of animal diseases. In the past two decades the majority of new control treatments have been either topically applied or orally administered to the host. Most reports concerning the development of insecticide resistance deal with the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis felis. Historically, insecticide resistance has developed to many of the insecticides used to control fleas in the environment including carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids. Product failures have been reported with some of the new topical treatments, but actual resistance has not yet been demonstrated. Failures have often been attributed to operational factors such as failure to adequately treat the pet and follow label directions. With the addition of so many new chemistries additional monitoring of flea populations is needed.

Synergism of the IGRs Methoprene and Pyriproxyfen Against Larval Cat Fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

Insect growth regulators (IGRs) methoprene and pyriproxyfen are widely used as topical treatments to pets or applied to the indoor environment to control cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché). The toxicity of methoprene, pyriproxyfen, and combinations of both IGRs to cat flea larvae was determined. The LC50 of methoprene and pyriproxyfen applied to larval rearing medium was 0.39 and 0.19 ppm, respectively. Combinations of methoprene:pyriproxyfen in ratios of 1:1, 5:1, 10:1, and 20:1 produced LC50s of 0.06, 0.09, 0.19, and 0.13 ppm, respectively. The pyriproxyfen synergized the activity of methoprene as indicated by the combination indices (CI). The ratio of methoprene:pyriproxyfen (40:1) provided an LC50 of 0.42 ppm and the pyriproxyfen was not synergistic. Combinations of pyriproxyfen:methoprene in ratios of 5:1, 10:1, and 20:1 provided LC50s of 0.14, 0.20, 0.20 ppm, respectively, and the methoprene did not synergize the activity of pyriproxyfen. The dose-reduction indices (DRIs) indicated that the concentrations of IGRs in the combinations of methoprene:pyriproxyfen (ratios of 20:1 or less) could be reduced by at least one-third of the amount required by methoprene alone to provide similar larval mortality. Combinations of methoprene and pyriproxyfen may be effective in increasing the residual activity on pets and assist in reducing the likelihood of insecticide resistance developing to IGRs.