Perceptions of parenthood and child development among parents who experienced child maltreatment.

Maltreatment survivors may be at risk for parenting challenges, although the previous literature is inconsistent, has focused on individual maltreatment forms, and has overlooked posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and other trauma exposure. The current study, thus, aimed to expand this research in four key ways by (a) examining all five maltreatment forms; (b) controlling for other nonmaltreatment trauma exposure to better isolate the role of maltreatment; (c) investigating maltreatment types and PTSS simultaneously; and (d) exploring novel parenting factors, specifically four types of parenting beliefs and developmental knowledge. Trauma-exposed parents (N = 301; Mage = 26.49 years, SD = 8.34, range: 18-69 years; 66.8% female; 59.8% White) participated in the study. A path analytic model indicated that, surprisingly, none of the maltreatment types nor cumulative trauma exposure corresponded with parental beliefs related to one's child, self, partner, or social relationships. PTSS, however, were tied to all four parenting belief types as well as developmental knowledge, ßs = -.05-.40. Physical and emotional abuse were linked to less accurate developmental knowledge, ß = .02, and maladaptive parenting practices, ß = .03. Sexual abuse, neglect, and witnessing domestic violence were not associated with any of the parenting factors. Thus, current trauma symptoms are likely a more critical intervention focus than maltreatment experiences, although physical and emotional abuse may also play a role in parenting knowledge and behaviors. These findings also signal the importance of including all five maltreatment forms and PTSS when conducting research on the interaction between trauma and parenting.

An investigation of the associations between trauma exposure, racial stereotypes, and racist beliefs.

OBJECTIVE: Given the concerning rise in hate crimes in recent years, it is critical to better understand factors associated with racist beliefs. As suggested by terror management theory (TMT), trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) may activate existential distress and anxiety, which may strengthen worldviews, including prejudiced beliefs (Greenberg & Kosloff, 2008; Weise et al., 2012). Although PTSS include negative alterations in beliefs about other people and the world, the connection between trauma and racist beliefs has not been investigated. There may also be key differences in terms of types of trauma exposure, such as interpersonal and noninterpersonal trauma, and racial beliefs. METHOD: The present study aimed to determine: (a) whether cumulative trauma exposure and PTSS are associated with endorsement of racist perceptions and stereotypes regarding Black people, and (b) if interpersonal trauma is more strongly tied to prejudiced and stereotyped beliefs than noninterpersonal trauma among 277 White undergraduates (Mage = 23.33, SD = 6.11; 76.4% female). RESULTS: Neither cumulative trauma nor PTSS were found to be related to elevated racist beliefs or positive or negative stereotypes. However, noninterpersonal trauma exposure was associated with stronger endorsement of racist beliefs and negative stereotypes (ηp² = .03, .01). Surprisingly, interpersonal trauma exposure corresponded with lower racist beliefs (ηp² = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Noninterpersonal trauma exposure may thus activate TMT and strengthen prejudiced ideology, whereas interpersonal traumatic experiences and PTSS may not. More research is needed to better understand how types of traumatic events may relate to the development of prejudiced beliefs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Trauma Exposure, Post-traumatic Stress Symptoms, and Indices of Parenting.

Previous studies have reported that trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) may increase the risk for parenting difficulties, yet it is not clear whether trauma exposure and PTSS independently contribute to parenting-related indices or whether there is an indirect effect of trauma exposure on parenting-related outcomes through PTSS. Further, the associations between PTSS and parenting outcomes utilizing the most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) criteria are unknown. The aims of the current study were to determine: (a) whether trauma exposure and PTSS are related to parenting indices; (b) if trauma exposure is associated with parenting factors indirectly through PTSS; and (c) whether the DSM-5 PTSD symptom clusters are each linked with parenting outcomes. Participants were 225 trauma-exposed parents (Mage = 36.81; SD = 8.32) from a Midwestern University or Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Cumulative trauma had an indirect effect on parental satisfaction, support, involvement, limit-setting, and autonomy via PTSS. The specific PTSD symptom clusters also demonstrated distinct ties to parenting outcomes. Higher levels of alterations in reactivity and arousal symptoms were associated with lower parental support and satisfaction, as expected. Avoidance symptoms were also inversely related to parental autonomy. However, a positive relationship was noted between intrusion symptoms and support, and changes in cognitions and mood were unrelated to parenting indices. PTSS may better explain decrements in aspects of parenting than trauma exposure. Certain types of PTSD symptoms, particularly trauma-related changes in reactivity and arousal, may be relevant in understanding and improving parenting outcomes among trauma-exposed parents.

The Role of Parents' Self-Perceptions in the Association Between Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Aspects of Parenting.

Parents' posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) have been shown to be negatively associated with aspects of parenting, yet the mechanisms that link PTSS to parenting remain unclear. Because PTSS include negative alterations in cognitions, trauma-exposed parents may have skewed perceptions of themselves as parents. However, no studies have examined whether there is an indirect effect of PTSS on parenting through parents' self-perceptions. Path analysis was used to determine (a) whether DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters are related to parenting indices (i.e., support, satisfaction, involvement) and self-perceptions, (b) if parental self-perceptions are tied to aspects of parenting, and (c) if there is an indirect effect of PTSS on parenting through parental self-perceptions. Participants were 223 trauma-exposed parents (Mage = 36.92 years, SD = 7.9, 63.7% female) recruited from a midwestern U.S. university or via Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood were inversely related to parental support, B = -0.41, p = .008, and alterations in arousal and reactivity were inversely associated with parental self-perceptions, B = -1.26, p = .001. Parental self-perceptions were positively related to all parenting indices, Bs = 0.27-0.44. Indirect effects were observed for alterations in arousal and reactivity and parental support, satisfaction, and involvement via parents' self-perceptions, Bs = -0.34 to -0.55. Parental self-perceptions appear to be a potential factor in understanding parenting difficulties for trauma-exposed parents experiencing alterations in arousal and reactivity. Targeting these perceptions may be a point of intervention aimed at improving parenting outcomes among trauma-exposed parents.

The effects of partner perceptions on the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and aspects of parenting.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with parenting difficulties, but the role of partner perceptions in this relationship is unclear. The present study aimed to (a) examine the links between partner perceptions, three PTSD symptom clusters (i.e., avoidance, negative alterations in cognitions and mood, changes in arousal and reactivity), and aspects of parenting (i.e., support, satisfaction, involvement) and (b) determine if partner perceptions moderate these relationships. METHOD: In total, 225 trauma-exposed parents (M = 36.87, SD = 8.32, 64% female, 52.9% White) were assessed via self-report measures. RESULTS: As expected, the negative alterations in cognitions and mood and arousal and reactivity clusters were negatively associated with partner perceptions (r = -.17 and -.24, respectively) and all three parenting indices (rs = -.15 to -.35). Avoidance symptoms were unrelated to partner perceptions but were tied to parental support and satisfaction (rs = -.15). Partner perceptions moderated the relationships between negative alterations in cognitions and mood and support and satisfaction (ßs = .02), as well as changes in arousal and reactivity and support (ß = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Parents with negative alterations in cognitions and mood and arousal and reactivity symptoms who perceive their partners negatively may be at higher risk for experiencing lower levels of parental support or satisfaction. Additionally, the negative links between the aforementioned symptom clusters and parenting disappeared in the context of positive partner perceptions, indicating a potential protective factor. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A mind-body program for pain and stress management in active duty service members and veterans.

The Mind-Body Medicine (MBM) program at the Naval Medical Center San Diego, created in collaboration with the Benson-Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine and the Home Base Program at Massachusetts General Hospital, is a 7-week program designed to facilitate stress management habits into patient treatment plans. The aim of this study is to test the feasibility and acceptability of a mind-body program for service members and veterans. Participants (N = 239) were primarily active duty service members of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps reporting significant perceived stress (Stress Resiliency (SR) group; n = 124), or meeting criteria for chronic pain (Pain Management (PM) group; n = 115). Participants completed measures at preprogram and post-program assessing for perceived stress, pain, functional impairment, quality of life, and psychological and somatic symptoms. Changes in self-reported psychological symptoms and knowledge and practice of mind-body principles were examined. Participants across groups had significant improvement in most outcomes (perceived stress, response to stressful experience, functional impairment, sleep disturbance, depression, PTSD, and anxiety symptoms; and each quality of life domain aside from social relationships), with p values < .0017 (Bonferroni corrected level of significance). The SR group demonstrated significant improvements in primary outcomes of perceived stress and response to stressful experience, and the PM group demonstrated significant improvement in pain severity, but not perceived stress. Significant change was observed in knowledge and practice of mind-body medicine principles, and high satisfaction was reported. Results suggest that a mind-body program may improve physical and psychological functioning for service members, including those facing significant perceived stress and chronic pain. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Children's Coping and Perceptions of Coping Efficacy After Sexual Abuse: Links to Trauma Symptoms.

Despite an emphasis on coping following childhood sexual abuse (CSA) to reduce trauma-related symptoms, very few studies have researched the associations between sexually abused children's coping and trauma-related difficulties, and perceived coping efficacy has been largely overlooked. The current study investigated whether children's use and perceived efficacy of avoidant, internalized, angry, and active/social coping strategies were associated with caregiver- and child-reported posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), and caregiver-reported internalizing and externalizing symptoms among 202 sexually abused children (8-12 years; M = 10.47 years, SD = 1.70 years). Children reported using approximately eight types of coping strategies (M = 8.29, SD =2.50). Regression models indicated that internalized and angry coping were associated with child-reported PTSS. In contrast to expectations, none of the types of coping strategies were linked with caregiver's reports of PTSS or internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Interestingly, perceived efficacy of coping was largely unrelated to symptoms, with only perceived efficacy of avoidant coping inversely related to child-reported PTSS. Perceived efficacy was not tied to caregiver's reports of children's symptoms. Coping strategies may be associated with children's, but not caregiver's, reports of children's trauma-related difficulties. Furthermore, perceived efficacy of coping strategies may also be largely unrelated to children's symptoms, or children may have limited insight regarding the efficacy of their coping strategies. To further inform trauma-focused interventions that support effective long-term coping, future research should investigate which coping strategies children perceive to be efficacious, as well as potential reasons why.

PostTraumatic Stress Symptoms And Beliefs Regarding Parenting And Children's Development Among Trauma-Exposed Parents.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) have been associated with increased risk for parenting difficulties; however, cognitive factors related to parenting, such as parenting perceptions and beliefs regarding children's development, remain unexplored. This is problematic as negative and unrealistic beliefs regarding parenthood and children may be a key mechanism by which PTSS increases vulnerability for adverse parenting outcomes. The aims of the study were to examine whether PTSS and the specific posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters were related to more negative parenting perceptions and to more unrealistic beliefs regarding children's development among 212 trauma-exposed parents (Mage  = 36.68 SD = 7.38; 60.9% female; 54.3% White). Higher levels of PTSS corresponded with more negative parenting perceptions and more unrealistic expectations of children. Intrusion, avoidance, and negative alterations in cognitions and mood were not associated with parenting perceptions. Trauma-related alterations in arousal and reactivity were related to more negative parenting-related beliefs regarding one's child and oneself. PTSS, particularly trauma-related changes in arousal and reactivity symptoms, may be relevant in understanding perceptions of parenthood and beliefs regarding children's development. These symptoms may be targeted via trauma-focused treatments to increase adaptive parenting outcomes for parents who have experienced trauma.

Does Maternal Support Mediate or Moderate the Relationship between Sexual Abuse Severity and Children's PTSD Symptoms?

Maternal support and abuse severity are often considered to be vital factors in predicting children's functioning following childhood sexual abuse (CSA); however, much of the prior research has examined support and abuse severity as main effects, without consideration of how these factors may interrelate to predict children's post-CSA functioning. Further, even though mediators and moderators are conceptually distinct, maternal support has been theorized to be both a mediator and a moderator of symptoms, and it is unclear if support acts as either among sexually abused children. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether caregiver-reported maternal support mediates or moderates the relationships between sexual abuse severity and children's trauma-related symptoms. The study included 235 treatment-seeking children ages 3-16 (M = 8.85, SD = 3.77) and their non-offending mothers. Contrary to expectations, caregiver-rated maternal support did not mediate nor moderate the relationship between abuse severity and children's symptoms (range r2 =.002 -.03). Caregiver-rated maternal support may play a small role in mitigating sexually abused children's trauma symptoms. Irrespective of abuse severity, children with less supportive mothers may not be at heightened risk for experiencing higher levels of trauma-related difficulties.

Maternal Support as a Predictor of Children's Sexualized Behaviors Following Childhood Sexual Abuse.

Although previous studies have concluded that maternal support following children's sexual abuse disclosures is an important predictor of children's symptoms, the empirical data to support this is limited. Much of the small prior literature has used measures of maternal support without adequately reported psychometric properties, which may obscure the true relationship between support and children's sexual behaviors. Further, it is unclear whether maternal support is related to children's sexual acting out in the context of known predictors of sexual behaviors. The purposes of the current study were to (1) examine the relationships between support and children's sexual behaviors and (2) determine whether support is related to sexual behaviors after controlling for known predictors among 161 treatment-seeking children (6-12 years old; M = 8.70, SD = 2.69) and their nonoffending mothers. In the bivariate analyses, emotional support was negatively related to children's sexual behaviors, whereas maternal blame/doubt was positively correlated with sexual behaviors. Nonetheless, after controlling for other predictors, emotional support predicted developmentally related sexual behaviors but not sexual abuse-specific sexual behaviors. Levels of emotional support and blame/doubt predicted children's total sexual behaviors, after accounting for identified predictors, suggesting that support may play a small role in understanding children's sexual behaviors.

Predictors of maternal support following children's sexual abuse disclosures.

Despite the importance of parental support following children's sexual abuse (CSA) disclosures, there is a dearth of research regarding the predictors of support. Much of the prior literature is limited by the use of small sample sizes, measures of support without adequately reported psychometric properties, and inadequate or inconsistent definitions of support, which hinders the ability to accurately identify key predictors. Further, some potentially important predictors of parental support remain unexplored, including child-reported abuse stressors (e.g., family conflict, nonsupportive disclosure responses). The present study aimed to better delineate predictors of maternal belief and emotional support by examining the links between child, maternal, and family factors, and abuse characteristics as reported by both mothers and children. Two hundred and forty-seven treatment-seeking children (M age = 9.24, SD = 3.74) and their non-offending mothers were included in the study. Select demographic factors (i.e., child's age, minority status), abuse characteristics (i.e., use of penetration, repeated CSA incidents, and amount of CSA characteristics known), and child-reported abuse stressors were tied to levels of maternal belief and/or emotional support. Maternal and family characteristics were unrelated to support. The child's age and whether the abuse occurred more than once remained robust predictors of both aspects of support in multivariate analyses. The amount of CSA information known to the mother predicted emotional support, which may signal the utility of increasing parental knowledge of the abuse to bolster their emotional support. Findings indicate that there are several factors that may influence levels of maternal support, and children who experience certain types of CSA may be at greater risk for lower levels of belief and support.

Complicated Grief Among Military Service Members and Veterans Who Served After September 11, 2001.

Minimal research is available on the prevalence and impact of complicated grief (CG) in military service members and veterans, despite high reported rates of loss in this population. The present study aimed to examine prevalence rates of CG in a sample of treatment-seeking military service and members and veterans who served after September 11, 2001. Additionally, the study aimed to examine characteristics associated with CG as well as the association between CG and quality of life. In a sample of 622 military service members and veterans who served after September 11, 2001, 502 reported a significant loss (80.7%). Usable data were available for a total of 468 participants. Of these 468 participants, 30.3% (n = 142) met diagnostic criteria for CG, as defined by a score of 30 or more on the Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG; Prigerson et al., 1995). We conducted a series of t tests and chi-square tests to examine the differences between individuals who met criteria for CG and those who did not. The presence of CG was associated with worse PTSD, d = 0.68, p < .001; depression, d = -1.10, p < .001; anxiety, d = -1.02, p < .001; stress, d = 0.99, p < .001; and quality of life, d = 0.76, p < .001. Multiple regression analyses examined the independent impact of CG on quality of life. Complicated grief was associated with poorer quality of life above and beyond PTSD, ß = -.12, p = .017. In addition, in a separate regression, CG was associated with poorer quality of life above and beyond depression, ß = -.13, p < .001. Overall, our findings highlight the impact of CG on this population, and have implications for assessment and treatment.

Examining the Relationship Between Parent and Child Psychopathology in Treatment-Seeking Veterans.

This study aimed to examine: (1) the relationship between parental psychopathology and child psychopathology in military families and (2) parenting sense of competence as a mediator of the relationship between veteran psychopathology and child psychopathology. As part of their standard clinical evaluations, 215 treatment-seeking veterans who reported having a child between the ages of 4 and 17 were assessed for psychopathology (posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, and stress), their sense of competence as a parent, and their child's psychopathology (internalizing, externalizing, and attentional symptoms). A path analysis model examining parenting sense of competence as a mediator of the relationship between veteran psychopathology and child psychopathology showed significant indirect effects of veteran depression on all child psychopathology outcomes via parenting sense of competence. Parental sense of competence may be a critical mechanism linking veteran depression and child psychopathology, and may therefore be an important target for intervention.

Posttraumatic Stress, Somatization, and Quality of Life Among Ivorian Refugees.

The present study examined the relationship between peritraumatic reactions, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, somatization, and quality of life (QoL) in a sample of refugees, two years after the 2011 Ivory Coast sociopolitical crisis. Participants were 101 Ivorian adult refugees (mean age = 31.61 years, SD = 7.84; 45.5% women) who completed several questionnaires relating to peritraumatic reactions, PTSD symptoms, somatization, and QoL. Most participants (86.1%) scored above the cutoff for probable PTSD. Peritraumatic dissociation and peritraumatic distress were significantly associated with PTSD symptoms, (r = .64, p < .001) and (r = .60, p < .001), respectively, and somatization, (r = .21, p = .038) and (r = .35, p < .001), respectively, as well as with QoL, (r = -.20, p = .045) and (r = -.21, p = .037), respectively. Similarly, QoL was significantly negatively correlated with PTSD symptoms (r = -.33, p < .001) and somatization (r = -.39, p < .001). In multivariate analyses, somatization was the strongest predictor of QoL (ß = -.31, p = .003). Finally, somatization statistically mediated the association between peritraumatic distress and QoL. These findings suggest that PTSD may be frequent among Ivorian refugees, and that somatization may be an important feature of the traumatic experiences. Targeting somatization in conjunction with trauma-centered therapy may improve outcomes in sub-Saharan Africans with PTSD.