A Survey of the Union of European Neonatal and Perinatal Societies on Neonatal Respiratory Care in Neonatal Intensive Care Units.

(1) Background: Our survey aimed to gather information on respiratory care in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) in the European and Mediterranean region. (2) Methods: Cross-sectional electronic survey. An 89-item questionnaire focusing on the current modes, devices, and strategies employed in neonatal units in the domain of respiratory care was sent to directors/heads of 528 NICUs. The adherence to the "European consensus guidelines on the management of respiratory distress syndrome" was assessed for comparison. (3) Results: The response rate was 75% (397/528 units). In most Delivery Rooms (DRs), full resuscitation is given from 22 to 23 weeks gestational age. A T-piece device with facial masks or short binasal prongs are commonly used for respiratory stabilization. Initial FiO2 is set as per guidelines. Most units use heated humidified gases to prevent heat loss. SpO2 and ECG monitoring are largely performed. Surfactant in the DR is preferentially given through Intubation-Surfactant-Extubation (INSURE) or Less-Invasive-Surfactant-Administration (LISA) techniques. DR caffeine is widespread. In the NICUs, most of the non-invasive modes used are nasal CPAP and nasal intermittent positive-pressure ventilation. Volume-targeted, synchronized intermittent positive-pressure ventilation is the preferred invasive mode to treat acute respiratory distress. Pulmonary recruitment maneuvers are common approaches. During NICU stay, surfactant administration is primarily guided by FiO2 and SpO2/FiO2 ratio, and it is mostly performed through LISA or INSURE. Steroids are used to facilitate extubation and prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia. (4) Conclusions: Overall, clinical practices are in line with the 2022 European Guidelines, but there are some divergences. These data will allow stakeholders to make comparisons and to identify opportunities for improvement.

Ultrasound Guidance Superiority in Pediatric Sialorrhea Treatment With Intraglandular Botulinum Toxin Application: A Four-Year Retrospective Study.

Introduction The management of sialorrhea in children with multiple disabilities is extremely important not only for aesthetic/psychosocial reasons but also for functional and clinical ones. There are several recommended management methods with strong evidence of the effectiveness of intraglandular application of botulinum toxin A. Materials and methods In this four-year retrospective report, we compare two populations who received intraglandular type A botulinum toxin injections in the pediatric unit of the Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PM&R) Department at a central hospital. The injections were administered using either ultrasound guidance (US) or anatomical landmarks. Results Out of a total of 29 patients with neurological conditions, 16 met the eligibility criteria for this study. The study group comprised seven females (44%) and nine males (56%), with a median age of 9 years. The average pre-procedure sialorrhea staging was four. A total of 23 procedures were performed, with 16 conducted under ultrasound guidance (US) and seven via anatomical landmarks (non-US). In the US group, a statistically significant difference in sialorrhea staging was observed at one and three months post-procedure (p<0.05), but not at six months post-procedure. Conversely, no statistically significant difference in sialorrhea staging was found at any time point in the non-US group. The comparison between the two groups supports the use of ultrasound guidance, showing superior outcomes at one and three months post-procedure (p<0.05). Conclusion The results of this study align with global trends seen in medical publications and guidelines advocating for the use of ultrasound in this procedure. Future prospective and larger-scale studies are essential to validate these findings.

Variation in delivery room management of preterm infants across Europe: a survey of the Union of European Neonatal and Perinatal Societies.

The aim of the present study, endorsed by the Union of European Neonatal and Perinatal Societies (UENPS) and the Italian Society of Neonatology (SIN), was to analyze the current delivery room (DR) stabilization practices in a large sample of European birth centers that care for preterm infants with gestational age (GA) < 33 weeks. Cross-sectional electronic survey was used in this study. A questionnaire focusing on the current DR practices for infants < 33 weeks' GA, divided in 6 neonatal resuscitation domains, was individually sent to the directors of European neonatal facilities, made available as a web-based link. A comparison was made between hospitals grouped into 5 geographical areas (Eastern Europe (EE), Italy (ITA), Mediterranean countries (MC), Turkey (TUR), and Western Europe (WE)) and between high- and low-volume units across Europe. Two hundred and sixty-two centers from 33 European countries responded to the survey. At the time of the survey, approximately 20,000 very low birth weight (VLBW, < 1500 g) infants were admitted to the participating hospitals, with a median (IQR) of 48 (27-89) infants per center per year. Significant differences between the 5 geographical areas concerned: the volume of neonatal care, ranging from 86 (53-206) admitted VLBW infants per center per year in TUR to 35 (IQR 25-53) in MC; the umbilical cord (UC) management, being the delayed cord clamping performed in < 50% of centers in EE, ITA, and MC, and the cord milking the preferred strategy in TUR; the spotty use of some body temperature control strategies, including thermal mattress mainly employed in WE, and heated humidified gases for ventilation seldom available in MC; and some of the ventilation practices, mainly in regard to the initial FiO2 for < 28 weeks' GA infants, pressures selected for ventilation, and the preferred interface to start ventilation. Specifically, 62.5% of TUR centers indicated the short binasal prongs as the preferred interface, as opposed to the face mask which is widely adopted as first choice in > 80% of the rest of the responding units; the DR surfactant administration, which ranges from 44.4% of the birth centers in MC to 87.5% in WE; and, finally, the ethical issues around the minimal GA limit to provide full resuscitation, ranging from 22 to 25 weeks across Europe. A comparison between high- and low-volume units showed significant differences in the domains of UC management and ventilation practices.    Conclusion: Current DR practice and ethical choices show similarities and divergences across Europe. Some areas of assistance, like UC management and DR ventilation strategies, would benefit of standardization. Clinicians and stakeholders should consider this information when allocating resources and planning European perinatal programs. What is Known: • Delivery room (DR) support of preterm infants has a direct influence on both immediate survival and long-term morbidity. • Resuscitation practices for preterm infants often deviate from the internationally defined algorithms. What is New: • Current DR practice and ethical choices show similarities and divergences across Europe. Some areas of assistance, like UC management and DR ventilation strategies, would benefit of standardization. • Clinicians and stakeholders should consider this information when allocating resources and planning European perinatal programs.

Neonatal Resuscitation Practices in Europe: A Survey of the Union of European Neonatal and Perinatal Societies.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to evaluate the policies and practices about neonatal resuscitation in a large sample of European hospitals. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional electronic survey. A 91-item questionnaire focusing on the current delivery room practices in neonatal resuscitation domains was individually sent to the directors of 730 European neonatal facilities or (in 5 countries) made available as a Web-based link. A comparison was made between hospitals with ≤2,000 and those with >2,000 births/year and between hospitals in 5 European areas (Eastern Europe, Italy, Mediterranean countries, Turkey, and Western Europe). RESULTS: The response rate was 57% and included participants from 33 European countries. In 2018, approximately 1.27 million births occurred at the participating hospitals, with a median of 1,900 births/center (interquartile range: 1,400-3,000). Routine antenatal counseling (p < 0.05), the presence of a resuscitation team at all deliveries (p < 0.01), umbilical cord management (p < 0.01), practices for thermal management (p < 0.05), and heart rate monitoring (p < 0.01) were significantly different between hospitals with ≤2,000 births/year and those with >2,000 births/year. Ethical and educational aspects were similar between hospitals with low and high birth volumes. Significant variance in practice, ethical decision-making, and training programs were found between hospitals in 5 different European areas. CONCLUSIONS: Several recommendations about available equipment and clinical practices recommended by the international guidelines are already implemented by centers in Europe, but a large variance still persists. Clinicians and stakeholders should consider this information when allocating resources and planning European perinatal programs.

Raccoon eyes in a newborn.

Introduction:Periorbital ecchymoses or "raccoon eyes" in the neonate/infant may be due to basal skull fractures or neuroblastoma.Case Report:A term male baby born by vacuum-assisted delivery developed a medium size subgaleal hematoma on the first day of life (DOL). On the third DOL, bilateral periorbital ecchymosis (raccoon eyes) developed. The cerebral ultrasound, hematologic and coagulation studies were normal. The raccoon eyes were interpreted as an extension of the subgaleal hematoma to the orbital ridges. At DOL 38, he was thriving and the raccoon eyes were resolved.Discussion:"Raccoon eyes" may result from a subgaleal hematoma without fracture caused by birth trauma.

[Very Low Birth Weight Infants in a Portuguese Intensive Care Unit and the Vermont Oxford Network: 15 Years of Registry Data]. / Recém-Nascido de Muito Baixo Peso numa Unidade de Cuidados Intensivos Portuguesa Comparativamente ao Vermont Oxford Network: 15 Anos de Registo.

INTRODUCTION: Our neonatal service is part of a differentiated perinatal hospital and has contributed to the Vermont Oxford Network for more than 15 years. This data base includes data on the morbidity and mortality of newborns born in the member hospitals with birth weight between 401 and 1500 g and/ or from 22 to 29 weeks and six days of gestation, or those admitted to these hospitals with up to 28 days of age. It thus allows the analysis of clinical practice and its comparison with similar units. The goal of the present paper is to disclose some of our data from the past 15 years and to compare it with the Vermont Oxford Network data trying to identify areas of possible improvement and permitting other neonatal units to compare their data with our in a benchmarking process. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Observational, retrospective study. It included newborns with birth weight ≤ 1500 g (very low birth weight newborns) born and treated at our hospital from 2001 to 2015. Descriptive data analysis, chi-square test and ANOVA, significance when p < 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 869 very low birth weight newborns were studied, median weight 1100 g and gestational age 29 weeks. Twinning was found in 37.6%. In the delivery room, 23% did not require any resuscitation, 52.2% of the newborns required invasive intubation, 78.3% had surfactant, and, since 2011, 29.7% have started noninvasive ventilation. Of the total very low birth weight newborns, 12.9% had oxygen therapy at 36 weeks of corrected age, 23% patent ductus arteriosus and late sepsis in 17.1%. There was higher neurological morbidity compared to the Vermont Oxford Network except in the case of retinopathy of prematurity. Overall mortality was 14% (122 newborns). The time of hospitalization was on average 52.7 ± 34.4 days. The 629 newborns that were discharged home had equivalent length of stay and head circumference measure but a lower weight than those in the Vermont Oxford Network, and 14.3% went home with exclusive breastfeeding. DISCUSSION: This work allowed us to study our very low birth weight newborns data and compare it with one of the largest neonatal world networks. Our population is similar from the point of view of gestational age, somatometric data, pregnancy surveillance rates and cesarean section with the most noticeable difference being the percentage of low birthweight for gestational age babies, twin pregnancies and antenatal corticosteroid treatment, superior in our center. Cardio-pulmonary and gastrointestinal disorders were overlapping. It is urgent to improve our rate of sepsis, neurologic sequelae, post-partum hypothermia control and neuroprotection with magnesium sulphate. The mortality rate and the length of stay at discharge was similar. CONCLUSION: This study allowed us to compare our population of very low birth weight newborns with those registered in the network. We have verified that we have been accompanying the evolution of Neonatology over the past years and we have identified areas for improvement.

Introdução: O nosso serviço de Neonatologia está integrado num hospital perinatal diferenciado e pertence à rede de registo Vermont Oxford Network desde há mais de 15 anos. Este registo inclui dados da morbi-mortalidade de recém-nascidos com peso de nascimento entre 401 e 1500 g e/ou das 22 às 29 semanas e seis dias de gestação, nascidos nos hospitais membros ou admitidos até aos 28 dias de vida. Permite a análise da prática clínica e comparação com unidades semelhantes. Foi nosso objetivo divulgar alguns dos nossos dados dos últimos 15 anos fazer a sua reflexão, o estudo dos resultados e evolução das práticas assistenciais neonatais ao longo dos anos, e compará-los com os dados de um grupo com o mesmo nível de cuidados da rede Vermont Oxford Network. Dado considerarmos ser fundamental o estudo dos dados de morbimortalidade das unidades de neonatologia e sua comparação com unidades congéneres no sentido de identificação de áreas suscetíveis de intervenção, consideramos a pertinência da divulgação dos nossos dados.Material e Métodos: Estudo observacional, retrospetivo. Incluídos recém-nascidos com peso de nascimento ≤ 1500 g (recém-nascido de muito baixo peso) nascidos e tratados no nosso Hospital de 2001 a 2015 e comparados em dois subgrupos temporais com os dados da rede Vermont Oxford Network. Análise dos dados descritiva, teste de qui-quadrado e ANOVA, significância quando p < 0,05.Resultados: Estudaram-se 869 recém-nascidos de muito baixo peso com uma mediana de peso 1100 g e idade gestacional 29 semanas. Eram gémeos 37,6%. Na sala de partos 23% não necessitaram de qualquer reanimação, precisaram de entubação endotraqueal 52,2% dos recém-nascidos, em 78,3% foi administrado surfactante e desde que tal começou a ser registado em 2011, 29,7% iniciaram de imediato ventilação não invasiva. Em relação às principais morbilidades estudadas do ponto de vista respiratório do total de recém-nascidos de muito baixo peso 12,9% tinham oxigenoterapia às 36 semanas de idade corrigida, em relação à persistência do canal arterial hemodinamicamente significativo esta verificou-se em 23% e do ponto de vista infecioso verificou-se sépsis tardia em 17,1%. Registámos maior morbilidade neurológica comparativamente à Vermont Oxford Network exceto na retinopatia da prematuridade. A mortalidade global foi de 14% (122 recém-nascidos). O tempo de internamento foi em média de 52,7 ± 34,4 dias. Os 629 recém-­nascidos que tiveram alta para o domicílio estiveram internados sensivelmente os mesmos dias e apresentavam valores semelhantes de perímetro cefálico, mas menor peso no dia da alta que os da rede Vermont Oxford Network, tendo tido alta da nossa unidade com aleitamento materno exclusivo 14,3% dos recém-nascidos de muito baixo peso.Discussão: Este trabalho permitiu fazer a reflexão sobre os dados do nosso serviço de Neonatologia e compará-los com os de um dos maiores registos neonatais mundiais. Verificámos que a nossa população de recém-nascidos de muito baixo peso é muito sobreponível do ponto de vista da idade gestacional e somatométrico, taxas de vigilância da gravidez e de cesarianas, sendo a diferença mais notória a percentagem de leves para a idade gestacional, de gestações gemelares e de realização de indução maturativa que foram superiores no nosso centro. As patologias do foro cardiorrespiratório e gastrointestinais foram sobreponíveis. Verificámos que é urgente melhorar a taxa de infeção associada aos cuidados de saúde, das sequelas neurológicas, do controle da hipotermia após o nascimento e da neuroprotecção com sulfato de magnésio. A taxa de mortalidade foi sobreponível assim como o tempo de internamento.Conclusão: Este trabalho permitiu-nos comparar a nossa população de recém-nascidos de muito baixo peso com os registados na rede. Verificámos que acompanhámos a evolução que a Neonatologia foi tendo ao longo dos anos e identificámos áreas suscetíveis de melhoria.

[Being a Mother After 35 Years: Will it be Different?] / Ser Mãe Depois dos 35 Anos: Será Diferente?

INTRODUCTION: Advanced maternal age is defined as maternity after 35 years old and is associated with more complications during pregnancy and neonatal period as well as decreased fertility. This study aims to examine the relationship between advanced maternal age and their maternal and fetal consequences, as well as maternal perception of the risk of pregnancy after 35 years old. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Observational, retrospective and comparative study, between two groups: advanced maternal age group (aged ≥ 35 years) and non-advanced maternal age group (age < 35 years), conducted between March and June 2015. Chi-square test and Fisher's exact test were used and considered significant if p < 0.05. RESULTS: Of the 736 women admitted to the hospital (32.2% with advanced maternal age), 306 were included in the study (153 in each group). In the non-advanced maternal age group there was a greater number of primiparous women (p < 0.01). In the advanced maternal age group, more previous miscarriages were observed (p < 0.001), as well as a higher use of assisted reproductive techniques (p < 0.01), preformed of amniocentesis (p < 0.001) and dystocia, including caesarean sections (p < 0.001). No association was found regarding the presence of maternal complications in pregnancy, birth defects, need for neonatal resuscitation or prematurity. As for the perception of risk in pregnancy, the non-advanced maternal age group considered it to be superior (p < 0.05). DISCUSSION: Most women of advanced maternal age have term deliveries without complications. Neonatal outcomes seem not to have been influenced by the advanced maternal age. CONCLUSION: The consequences of an advanced maternal age pregnancy in this sample did not have the same clinical expression as described in the literature. In the future, advanced maternal age will possibly be considered after age 40.

Introdução: A idade materna avançada corresponde à maternidade depois dos 35 anos. Está associada a maior número de complicações na gravidez e período neonatal e ainda à diminuição da fertilidade. Propôs-se analisar a relação entre idade materna avançada e suas consequências materno-fetais, assim como a perceção materna dos riscos de uma gravidez depois dos 35 anos. Material e Métodos: Estudo observacional, retrospetivo, descritivo e comparativo entre dois grupos: Grupo idade materna avançada (idade ≥ 35 anos) e Grupo não-idade materna avançada (idade < 35 anos), efetuado entre março e junho de 2015. Utilizado o teste do qui-quadrado e teste exato de Fisher e considerado significativo se p < 0,05. Resultados: Das 736 puérperas internadas (32,2% com idade materna avançada), 306 foram incluídas no estudo (153 em cada grupo). No grupo não-idade materna avançada verificou-se um maior número de primíparas (p < 0,01). No grupo idade materna avançada observou-se um maior número de abortos espontâneos prévios (p < 0,001) e foi superior o recurso a técnicas de reprodução medicamente assistida (p < 0,01), a realização de amniocentese (p < 0,001) e o número de partos distócicos, nomeadamente cesarianas (p < 0,001). Não se encontraram diferenças em relação à presença de patologia materna na gravidez, malformações congénitas, necessidade de reanimação neonatal ou prematuridade. Quanto à perceção do risco numa gravidez em idade materna avançada, o grupo não-idade materna avançada considerou-o superior (p < 0,05). Discussão: A maior parte das mulheres em idade materna avançada tiveram partos de termo e sem complicações. Os resultados neonatais parecem não ter sido influenciados pela idade materna avançada. Conclusão: As consequências de uma gravidez em idade materna avançada na nossa amostra não tiveram a mesma expressão clínica que as descritas na literatura. No futuro, a idade materna avançada será possivelmente considerada após os 40 anos.

[Conditions for neonatal resuscitation in Portuguese delivery rooms: a national survey (2009)]. / Condições de assistência ao recém-nascido na sala de partos: inquérito nacional (2009).

INTRODUCTION: In Portugal, since 1989, the rates of maternal, perinatal and neonatal mortality present a significant decrease, after the implemented perinatal network. The continuous assessment of the existing conditions at the different levels of perinatal care is essential to identify deviations from normality and may allow the optimization of quality of care. OBJECTIVES: To obtain information on and to evaluate the conditions and practices of neonatal resuscitation at the Portuguese delivery rooms, in order to propose measures for improvement of neonatal care. MATERIAL AND METHODS: An electronic questionnaire was sent to 35 hospitals with maternity. The survey included questions regarding to human and material resources, characteristics of delivery room practices used in stabilization / resuscitation of the newborn, number of deliveries and number of newborns transferred after birth per year, as well as issues related with the collaboration of obstetric teams. RESULTS: Thirty centres (86%) answered the questionnaire, 16 of the respondents were level III maternities/hospitals. In eight (27%) centres a paediatrician is present at all deliveries, whereas in the remaining centres a paediatrician is available only for risk situations. The material unavailable in some centres include cardio-respiratory monitoring equipment, support device with pressure controlled ventilation, oxygen blender, ventilator, CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure), neonatal transport incubators and equipments for thoracocentesis and paracentesis. The criteria used for prophylactic surfactant and oxygen use are very different among the various centres. All centres reported transferring newborns after birth, either because of lack of differentiation of care or vacant beds. The centres with perinatal support reported less cooperation of the obstetric teams. CONCLUSIONS: The care of the newborn in the national delivery rooms can and should be improved. It is necessary to adapt the equipment and human resources to the needs of each centre. Protocols and practices such as oxygen and "prophylactic" surfactant must be updated, transport after birth must be reduced and the communication with the obstetric teams should be improved.

Early nasal continuous positive airway pressure versus INSURE in VLBW neonates.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests the INSURE strategy (INtubate-SURfactant administration and Extubate to nasal continuous positive airway pressure [nCPAP]) is superior to mechanical ventilation (MV) with rescue surfactant for the management of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates. There is limited data, however, to assess whether INSURE is superior to nCPAP alone. We aimed to compare these two strategies regarding early and late outcomes. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study from Jan/2002 to Aug/2008. We included VLBW neonates with gestational age (GA) ≤ 30 weeks registered in the Vermont Oxford Network that used either nCPAP alone (nCPAP group, N=40), or with INSURE (INSURE group, N=56). We assessed early (RDS, need for rescue surfactant, and CPAP failure with MV) and late outcomes (chronic lung disease of prematurity (CLD), mortality, and composite outcome of mortality and/or CLD). RESULTS: Neonates in the INSURE group had lower mean GA, while other baseline variables were comparable. The proportion of RDS was significantly superior in the nCPAP group (53% vs. 30%; adjusted OR [95% CI] - 0.2 [0.1-0.6]). Therapeutic surfactant was administered to all cases with RDS in the nCPAP group, but to none from the INSURE group. MV was more frequently required in the nCPAP group (11/ 40, 28% vs. 9/ 56, 12%; p=0.04). No statistically significant differences were found in either of the late outcomes. CONCLUSION: The use of nCPAP alone in VLBW neonates with GA ≤ 30 weeks may be associated with slightly poorer early outcomes than the INSURE strategy, but there were no significant differences in CLD or mortality.

Respiratory support strategies for the preterm newborn - National survey 2008.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory support strategies for the preterm newborn have been the subject of intense research. AIM: To survey neonatal respiratory support practices in Portugal and to determine whether they reflect evidence from randomised trials. METHODS: Questionnaires were given out to 31 Portuguese neonatal units to determine the types of ventilators, modes of ventilation, lung function monitoring, use of exogenous surfactant, oxygen saturation levels used and the prevalence of chronic lung disease in the preterm newborn. RESULTS: There was a 94% response rate. Draeger babylog was the most frequently used ventilator in neonates. Twelve (41%) units prefer to use early nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP) whenever possible. Triggered ventilation is the choice of invasive ventilation in 24 (83%) units (SIMV, SIPPV, PSV); four (14%) units have high frequency oscillation ventilation. SIMV is the most frequent (n=13, 45%) weaning mode. Exogenous surfactant is used as prophylactic in 12 (41%) units. All units use lung function measurements to aid choice of ventilator settings and five (17%) units monitor PaCO2 (transcutaneous = 3; capnometry = 2). Seventeen (59%) units allow oxygen saturation levels from 90% to 95% in infants with respiratory distress syndrome and 15 (52%) levels from 85% to 90% in infants with chronic lung disease. Prevalence of chronic lung disease of prematurity ranged from 0% to 75% (median: 10). CONCLUSIONS: Many respiratory strategies for extremely low birth weight infants reflect the result of large randomised trials. More effective methods may be required to encourage the use of early NCPAP preferably with binasal prongs, the use of SIPPV as the main weaning mode, the use of volume targeted ventilation and a more judicious use of exogenous surfactant in order to ensure evidence-based practice.

High rates of transmission of and colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae within a day care center revealed in a longitudinal study.

Day care centers (DCCs) are unique settings where young children are at increased risk for colonization by pneumococci and Haemophilus influenzae. Although point prevalence studies in DCCs are frequent, only a few longitudinal studies on the dynamics of colonization have been published. We conducted a 1-year longitudinal study with 11 sampling periods on nasopharyngeal carriage of pneumococci and H. influenzae among 47 children who attended a single DCC. All isolates were antibiotyped and genotyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Pneumococci were also serotyped. Of the 414 samples obtained, 61.4% contained pneumococci, and 87% contained H. influenzae. Only 8.3% of the samples were negative for both species. Twenty-one pneumococcal clones and 47 H. influenzae clones were identified. Introduction of clones occurred during all year. Ninety-eight percent and 96% of all pneumococcal and H. influenzae isolates, respectively, belonged to clones shared by more than one child. Children were sequentially colonized with up to six pneumococcal clones (mean, 3.6) and five serotypes and nine H. influenzae clones (mean, 7.1). Clones with increased capacity for transmission and/or prolonged colonization were identified in both species. These two fitness properties appeared to be independent. In conclusion, among DCC attendees, a high rate of acquisition and turnover of strains was observed, and all children were overwhelmingly colonized by clones shared with others. DCCs are units where permanent introduction of new clones occurs, and attendees, as a whole, provide a pool of hosts where the fittest clones find privileged opportunities to persist and expand.

Effect of the seven-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine on carriage and drug resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae in healthy children attending day-care centers in Lisbon.

AIMS: Prospective study to evaluate the impact of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (Prevenar) on the nasopharyngeal (NP) carriage of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRPn), by healthy children attending day-care centers (ages 6 months-6 years). METHODS: Vaccinees (238 children) who received vaccine and controls (457 children) were followed for carriage of total S. pneumoniae and DRPn and for the serotypes and genetic backgrounds of DRPn during 6 consecutive sampling periods between May 2001 and February 2003. RESULTS: We detected no significant differences between vaccinees and the control group in the total carriage rate of Pn (average, 68%) or in the frequency of carriage of DRPn (average, 38%), including the frequency of penicillin-nonsusceptible strains (average, 24%). In contrast, there was a decline in the carriage of DRPn with vaccine serotypes which was compensated by the appearance and gradual increase in the frequency of DRPn expressing unusual serotypes (6A, 10A, 15A and 15C, 19A, 23A, 33F) which were not present in the vaccine as well as an increase in nontypable strains. The majority of the DRPn with unusual serotypes showed different pulsed field gel electrophoresis patterns indicating replacement of the original resistant flora by other clonal types of drug-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic consumption and the frequency of respiratory tract infections were similar among the vaccinees and controls. CONCLUSIONS: Pneumococcal vaccination did not change the frequency of carriage of drug-resistant strains being the initially dominant vaccine serotypes replaced by others expressing nonvaccine serotypes. Reduction in the carriage of DRPn may require a combination of the conjugate vaccine and a decrease in antibiotic pressure.