Prevalence of Avian Influenza in Live Bird Markets, Bird Gardens, and Zoos in Iran in 2015: A Cross-sectional Study.

Avian Influenza (AI) H9N2 is endemic in Iran; therefore, it is necessary to estimate the disease prevalence among birds in live bird markets (LBMs) and assess the risk spread across the country. Accordingly, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of AI subtypes in LBMs, bird gardens, and zoos during October and November 2015 in Iran and investigate the associated risk factors. Data related to independent variables for birds and premises were collected using a prepared questionnaire which included items about previously known potential risk factors associated with avian influenza infection. Serological testing was carried out to detect the antibodies against H5, H7, and H9. Regarding H5 and H7, the antigens H5N2 and H7N1 were used in this study. Positive samples on the first test were examined with the second antigens, namely H5N1 and H7N7. Moreover, sera with titers ≥4 (i.e. log2) were considered positive and premises with at least one positive bird were considered as positive units. In total, 87 premises were included in this cross-sectional study. Serum samples were examined utilizing hemagglutination inhibition, and RT-PCR was conducted on swab samples. Regarding the molecular test, the RNA was extracted using the High Pure Viral RNA Kit (Roche, Germany). In addition, real-time RT-PCR was conducted based on the described method. The seroprevalence rates of H9N2 were 83.9% and 31.8% at the premises and bird levels, respectively. Totally, 9.2% of pooled swab samples were positive for H9N2. However, all sera and swab samples were negative for H5 and H7. Hot and humid weather (OR=0.13, 95% CI 0.02 – 0.78) as well as bird-keeping condition (i.e., enclosed area) (OR=0.11, 95% CI 0.012 – 1.02) were protective factors for H9N2. High seroprevalence rate of H9 indicates that the disease is endemic in Iranian LBMs. Active surveillance must be carried out in LBMs, especially in the northern provinces of Iran. In addition, cleanliness and improved hygiene would be useful to prevent the spread of disease in LBMs.

Estimate of the annual burden of foodborne illness in nondeployed active duty US Army Service Members: five major pathogens, 2010-2015.

In this study, we estimate the burden of foodborne illness (FBI) caused by five major pathogens among nondeployed US Army service members. The US Army is a unique population that is globally distributed, has its own food procurement system and a food protection system dedicated to the prevention of both unintentional and intentional contamination of food. To our knowledge, the burden of FBI caused by specific pathogens among the US Army population has not been determined. We used data from a 2015 US Army population survey, a 2015 US Army laboratory survey and data from FoodNet to create inputs for two model structures. Model type 1 scaled up case counts of Campylobacter jejuni, Shigella spp., Salmonella enterica non-typhoidal and STEC non-O157 ascertained from the Disease Reporting System internet database from 2010 to 2015. Model type 2 scaled down cases of self-reported acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) to estimate the annual burden of Norovirus illness. We estimate that these five pathogens caused 45 600 (5%-95% range, 30 300-64 000) annual illnesses among nondeployed active duty US Army Service members. Of these pathogens, Norovirus, Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica non-typhoidal were responsible for the most illness. There is a tremendous burden of AGI and FBI caused by five major pathogens among US Army Soldiers, which can have a tremendous impact on readiness of the force. The US Army has a robust food protection program in place, but without a specific active FBI surveillance system across the Department of Defence, we will never have the ability to measure the effectiveness of modern, targeted, interventions aimed at the reduction of specific foodborne pathogens.

Magnitude, distribution, risk factors and care-seeking behaviour of acute, self-reported gastrointestinal illness among US Army Soldiers: 2015.

Throughout history, acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) has been a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among US service members. We estimated the magnitude, distribution, risk factors and care seeking behaviour of AGI among the active duty US Army service members using a web-based survey. The survey asked about sociodemographic characteristics, dining and food procurement history and any experience of diarrhoea in the past 30 days. If respondents reported diarrhoea, additional questions about concurrent symptoms, duration of illness, medical care seeking and stool sample submission were asked. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression were used to identify the factors associated with AGI and factors associated with seeking care and submitting a stool sample. The 30-day prevalence of AGI was 18.5% (95% CI 16.66-20.25), the incidence rate was 2.24 AGI episodes per person-year (95% CI 2.04-2.49). Risk factors included a region of residence, eating at the dining facility and eating at other on-post establishments. Individuals with AGI missed 2.7-3.7 days of work, which costs approximately $ 847 451 629 in paid wages. Results indicate there are more than 1 million cases of AGI per year among US Army Soldiers, which can have a major impact on readiness. We found that care-seeking behaviours for AGI are different among US Army Service Members than the general population. Army Service Members with AGI report seeking care and having a stool sample submitted less often, especially for severe (bloody) diarrhoea. Factors associated with seeking care included rank, experiencing respiratory symptoms (sore throat, cough), experiencing vomiting and missing work for their illness. Factors associated with submitting a stool sample including experiencing more than five loose stools in 24 h and not experiencing respiratory symptoms. US Army laboratory-based surveillance under-estimates service members with both bloody and non-bloody diarrhoea. To our knowledge, this is the first study to estimate the magnitude, distribution, risk factors and care-seeking behaviour of AGI among Army members. We determined Army service members care-seeking behaviours, AGI risk factors and stool sample submission rates are different than the general population, so when estimating burden of AGI caused by specific foodborne pathogens using methods like Scallan et al. (2011), unique multipliers must be used for this subset of the population. The study legitimises not only the importance of AGI in the active duty Army population but also highlights opportunities for public health leaders to engage in simple strategies to better capture AGI impact so more modern intervention strategies can be implemented to reduce burden and indirectly improve operational readiness across the Enterprise.

Qualitative risk assessment for the transmission of African swine fever to Thailand from Italy, 2015.

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious disease that infects porcine species and has a major impact on the pig industry. Thailand imported approximately4 million kilograms of pig products from Italy in 2015 during the same time as an ASF outbreak was occurring on the island of Sardinia in Italy, thereby posing a potential risk of introduction of ASF virus (ASFV) into Thailand. To estimate whether or not importing pig products from Italy is a risk for Thailand and to identify gaps in control and prevention measures, risk analysis was performed. The objective of this study was to estimate the risk of the introduction of ASFV through imported pig products from Italy into Thailand in 2015, using qualitative risk assessment approaches, with the aim to define specific control and preventive measures. The framework used to analyse risk in this study was composed of hazard identification, qualitative risk assessment and risk mitigation. Qualitative risk assessment revealed that the likelihood of introduction of ASFV into Thailand was negligible, while the level of consequence of virus introduction was high. The overall risk was determined to be negligible. Risk mitigation recommendations were framed to minimise the risk. In addition, this study provided a baseline qualitative risk of ASFV introduction and a systematic approach to a qualitative risk analysis.

La peste porcine africaine (PPA) est une maladie extrêmement contagieuse affectant les suidés et dont l'impact sur la filière porcine est considérable. En2015, la Thaïlande a importé d'Italie environ quatre mille tonnes de produits issus de porcs, alors même qu'un foyer de PPA se déclarait sur l'île de Sardaigne (Italie), entraînant un risque potentiel d'introduction du virus de la peste porcine africaine (VPPA) en Thaïlande. Une analyse des risques a été conduite afin de déterminer si l'importation de produits issus de porcs provenant d'Italie représentait ou non un risque pour la Thaïlande et d'identifier d'éventuelles lacunes dans les mesures de contrôle et de prévention. Les auteurs présentent les résultats d'une étude visant à évaluer le risque que le VPPA ait pu être introduit en Thaïlande en 2015 via l'importation de produits d'origine porcine en provenance d'Italie ; pour ce faire, des méthodes qualitatives d'évaluation du risque ont été appliquées, destinées à définir par la suite des mesures de contrôle et de prévention adaptées. Le cadre d'analyse comportait un volet d'identification des dangers, un volet d'évaluation qualitative du risque et un volet d'atténuation du risque. L'évaluation qualitative du risque a fait apparaître que la probabilité d'introduction du VPPA en Thaïlande était négligeable, tandis que les conséquences d'une telle introduction étaient d'un niveau élevé. Le risque global a été caractérisé comme négligeable. Des recommandations en termes d'atténuation du risque ont été proposées afin de minimiser le risque. En outre, cette étude a fourni une définition qualitative de référence du risque d'introduction du VPPA ainsi qu'une méthode systématique pour effectuer une analyse qualitative du risque.

La peste porcina africana (PPA) es una enfermedad muy contagiosa que infecta a las especies porcinas y tiene repercusiones muy importantes en el sector porcino. En 2015 Tailandia importó cerca de 4 millones de kilogramos de productos porcinos de Italia, a la vez que un brote de PPA asolaba la isla italiana de Cerdeña, cosa que entrañaba el eventual riesgo de introducción del virus de la PPA en Tailandia. Con el fin de determinar si la importación de productos porcinos procedentes de Italia suponía o no un riesgo para Tailandia y detectar eventuales deficiencias en los dispositivos de control y prevención, se llevó a cabo un análisis del riesgo. Los autores describen ese estudio, destinado a estimar el riesgo de introducción del virus de la PPA a través de productos porcinos importados de Italia a Tailandia en 2015. Para ello se emplearon métodos de evaluación cualitativa del riesgo, con el objetivo último de definir medidas específicas de control y prevención. El método de análisis del riesgo utilizado en el estudio constaba de varios procedimientos: determinación de los peligros, evaluación cualitativa del riesgo y mitigación del riesgo. La evaluación cualitativa puso de manifiesto que la probabilidad de introducción del virus de la PPA en Tailandia era ínfima, pero también que tal introducción tendría consecuencias de gran calado. A la postre se concluyó que el riesgo global era insignificante. A fin de reducir al mínimo el riesgo se formularon una serie de recomendaciones encaminadas a mitigarlo. Además, el estudio dejó sentado un nivel de referencia del riesgo cualitativo de introducción del virus de la PPA y sirvió para instaurar un método sistemático de análisis cualitativo del riesgo.

Corrigendum: Determinants of Vaccination Coverage and Consequences for Rabies Control in Bali, Indonesia.

[This corrects the article on p. 123 in vol. 3, PMID: 28119919.].

Sero-survey of Avian Influenza in backyard poultry and wild bird species in Iran-2014.

In almost all villages in Iran backyard birds, especially chickens, are kept for egg and meat production. AI H9N2 subtype is endemic in Iran. Therefore, estimation of AI prevalence among these birds is important to determine the risk of transmission of infection to commercial farms. The aim of this study was to estimate subclinical infections or previous exposure to H5, H7, and H9 subtypes and to identify potentially important determinants of prevalence of this infectious at premises level in backyard poultry, bird gardens, zoos, and wild bird markets in Iran. A survey was conducted using a cross-sectional design throughout the entire country. A total of 329 villages, seven bird gardens, three zoos and five wild bird markets were included. In each village four families that kept birds were included in the collection of biological samples and background information. The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) was used as the screening test and all ELISA-positive samples were examined with the HI test to differentiate H5, H7, and H9. Among the bird gardens, eight of 15 premises (53.3%) were positive in both the ELISA test and HI for H9N2. Testing of samples collected in the villages revealed that 296 out of 329 villages (90%) had positive ELISA tests and also HI tests for H9. The HI-H9 mean titers in positive units were significantly higher than negative units (P<.001). This study revealed no significant statistical differences between risk variables in seropositive and seronegative bird gardens in the case of H9 (P>.05). The results of this study showed that among the risk variables, mountainous area was a protective factor and lack of hygienic disposal of dead birds was a risk factor for AI; this was also observed in rural poultry. The high sero-prevalence of influenza H9N2 in rural domestic poultry indicates that the disease is endemic. It is necessary to include backyard poultry in any surveillance system and control strategy due to the existence of AIV in backyard poultry and the possibility of transmission of infection to commercial poultry farms. Implementation of an AI surveillance program and biosecurity measures can be useful to control this infection and prevent AI from spreading to commercial farms. Furthermore in Iran there is no program for destruction of birds infected with the H9N2, so an effective vaccination program with regard to issues such as acceptability and cost-benefit must play an important role in reducing infections in backyard poultry.

Determinants of Vaccination Coverage and Consequences for Rabies Control in Bali, Indonesia.

Maintaining high vaccination coverage is key to successful rabies control, but mass dog vaccination can be challenging and population turnover erodes coverage. Declines in rabies incidence following successive island-wide vaccination campaigns in Bali suggest that prospects for controlling and ultimately eliminating rabies are good. Rabies, however, has continued to circulate at low levels. In the push to eliminate rabies from Bali, high coverage needs to be maintained across all areas of the island. We carried out door-to-door (DTD) questionnaire surveys (n = 10,352 dog-owning households) and photographic mark-recapture surveys (536 line transects, 2,597 observations of free-roaming dogs) in 2011-2012 to estimate dog population sizes and assess rabies vaccination coverage and dog demographic characteristics in Bali, Indonesia. The median number of dogs per subvillage unit (banjar) was 43 (range 0-307) for owned dogs estimated from the DTD survey and 17 (range 0-83) for unconfined dogs (including both owned and unowned) from transects. Vaccination coverage of owned dogs was significantly higher in adults (91.4%) compared to juveniles (<1 year, 43.9%), likely due to insufficient targeting of pups and from puppies born subsequent to vaccination campaigns. Juveniles had a 10-70 times greater risk of not being vaccinated in urban, suburban, and rural areas [combined odds ratios (ORs): 9.9-71.1, 95% CI: 8.6-96.0]. Free-roaming owned dogs were also 2-3 times more likely to be not vaccinated compared to those confined (combined Ors: 1.9-3.6, 95% CI: 1.4-5.4), with more dogs being confined in urban (71.2%) than in suburban (16.1%) and rural areas (8.0%). Vaccination coverage estimates from transects were also much lower (30.9%) than household surveys (83.6%), possibly due to loss of collars used to identify the vaccination status of free-roaming dogs, but these unconfined dogs may also include dogs that were unowned or more difficult to vaccinate. Overall, coverage levels were high in the owned dog population, but for future campaigns in Bali to have the highest chance of eliminating rabies, concerted effort should be made to vaccinate free-roaming dogs particularly in suburban and rural areas, with advertising to ensure that owners vaccinate pups. Long-lasting, cheap, and quick methods are needed to mark vaccinated animals and reassure communities of the reach of vaccination campaigns.

A pilot study exploring the use of breath analysis to differentiate healthy cattle from cattle experimentally infected with Mycobacterium bovis.

Bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, is a zoonotic disease of international public health importance. Ante-mortem surveillance is essential for control; however, current surveillance tests are hampered by limitations affecting ease of use or quality of results. There is an emerging interest in human and veterinary medicine in diagnosing disease via identification of volatile organic compounds produced by pathogens and host-pathogen interactions. The objective of this pilot study was to explore application of existing human breath collection and analysis methodologies to cattle as a means to identify M. bovis infection through detection of unique volatile organic compounds or changes in the volatile organic compound profiles present in breath. Breath samples from 23 male Holstein calves (7 non-infected and 16 M. bovis-infected) were collected onto commercially available sorbent cartridges using a mask system at 90 days post-inoculation with M. bovis. Samples were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and chromatographic data were analyzed using standard analytical chemical and metabolomic analyses, principle components analysis, and a linear discriminant algorithm. The findings provide proof of concept that breath-derived volatile organic compound analysis can be used to differentiate between healthy and M. bovis-infected cattle.

A brucellosis disease control strategy for the Kakheti region of the country of Georgia: an agent-based model.

Brucellosis has been reported in livestock and humans in the country of Georgia with Brucella melitensis as the most common species causing disease. Georgia lacked sufficient data to assess effectiveness of the various potential control measures utilizing a reliable population-based simulation model of animal-to-human transmission of this infection. Therefore, an agent-based model was built using data from previous studies to evaluate the effect of an animal-level infection control programme on human incidence and sheep flock and cattle herd prevalence of brucellosis in the Kakheti region of Georgia. This model simulated the patterns of interaction of human-animal workers, sheep flocks and cattle herds with various infection control measures and returned population-based data. The model simulates the use of control measures needed for herd and flock prevalence to fall below 2%. As per the model output, shepherds had the greatest disease reduction as a result of the infection control programme. Cattle had the greatest influence on the incidence of human disease. Control strategies should include all susceptible animal species, sheep and cattle, identify the species of brucellosis present in the cattle population and should be conducted at the municipality level. This approach can be considered as a model to other countries and regions when assessment of control strategies is needed but data are scattered.

North American Beef Tenderness Survey 2011-2012: benchmarking tenderness and sample shipping procedures.

Fifty-four stores in 30 U.S. cities were sampled from June 2011 through May 2012 to benchmark beef tenderness at retail, as assessed by Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF). Top loin (Longissimus dorsi; n = 980) and sirloin (Gluteus medius and Biceps femoris; n = 860) steaks were collected at random (Quality Grade and brand) and shipped via overnight delivery to Colorado State University. From June 2011 through November 2011, North American Beef Tenderness Survey (NABTS) Period 1, samples were shipped fresh and then frozen. Mean WBSF values during Period 1 were 2.9 and 3.5 kg for top loin and sirloin steaks, respectively. Frequencies of steaks classified as tough (WBSF ≥ 4.4 kg) were 8.6% and 17.7% for top loin and sirloin steaks, respectively. When shipped fresh, a disproportionately high frequency (16.9%) of top loin steaks had WBSF ≤ 2.0 kg, representing a deviation from previous works. Two trials were conducted to assess the effect of freezing, retail display, and shipping on WBSF and slice shear force (SSF) of beef top loin steaks. Freezing, retail display, and shipment reduced WBSF by 0.4, 0.3, and 0.0 kg during Trial 1, and by 0.4, 0.3, and 0.1 kg during Trial 2. Slice shear force was lower (P < 0.05) in steaks exposed to shipping conditions during Trial 1; however, this difference was not observed in Trial 2. Shipping decreased the frequency of steaks categorized as tough (SSF ≥ 20.0 kg) from 11.1 to 5.7% and from 30.5 to 28.6%, during Trial 1 and 2, respectively. During Trial 1, WBSF indicated that shipping increased incidence of tough samples from 0.0 to 3.8%, but this trend was reversed during Trial 2 when shipping reduced incidence of tough samples from 13.0 to 5.6%. Coefficients of variation for treatment effects suggested variance remained unchanged (± 2.0%), with respect to shear force values. However, mean values were reduced as a result of shipping conditions. These findings dictated a change in NABTS protocol from December 2011 through May 2012 (Period 2), during which time samples were shipped frozen. Mean WBSF values were 3.4 and 4.0 kg for top loin and sirloin samples, respectively. Frequencies of steaks classified as tough were 14% and 23.5% for top loin and sirloin steaks, respectively. These findings suggest that freezing samples before shipment may influence shear force of steaks collected at the retail level. These data should be considered when evaluating beef tenderness surveys and in the design of future works.

Knowledge base and effectiveness of online continuing education about foreign animal diseases for equine veterinarians.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of two different methods of online education using the knowledge base of African horse sickness (AHS) among US equine veterinarians as a model. An e-mail was sent to US veterinary members of the American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), inviting them to participate in a complementary online educational opportunity. We determined participants' baseline knowledge of AHS by their responses in an AHS case scenario. Participants were then randomly assigned to either a Webinar module or a text-formatted module, followed by an educational assessment quiz. Educational effectiveness was measured by considering the difference between the educational assessment quiz score and the baseline knowledge score. Of the 5,394 members from the AAEP list, 309 veterinarians agreed to participate, but only 211 completed the entire study. The median baseline knowledge score from the case scenario was 20 out of a perfect score of 100 points. The median assessment quiz score after the participants had access to the AHS educational material was 90, which was significantly higher than the baseline knowledge score (p=.01). Educational effectiveness in the module formats showed no significant difference (p=.81). Results from this study suggest that online education modules, once accessed, may improve participants' knowledge of veterinary diseases.

Risk factors associated with human brucellosis in the country of Georgia: a case-control study.

Human brucellosis occurs when humans ingest or contact Brucella spp. from shedding animals or contaminated environments and food. In Georgia animal and human brucellosis is endemic, but the epidemiology has not been fully characterized. A case-control study was conducted in 2010 to identify risk factors for human brucellosis. Using multivariable logistic regression, the following risk factors were identified: animal-related work [odds ratio (OR) 77·8, 90% confidence interval (CI) 4·7-1278], non-animal-related work (OR 12·7, 90% CI 1·1-149), being unemployed or a pensioner (OR 13·1, 90% CI 1·7, 101), sheep ownership (OR 19·3, 90% CI 5·1-72·6), making dairy products (OR 12·4, 90% CI 1·4-113), living in eastern Georgia (Kakheti) (OR 278·1, 90% CI 9·5-8100), and being aged >44 years (OR 9·3, 90% CI 1·02-84·4). Education of at-risk groups about risk factors and control of disease in sheep may reduce the human disease risk. This is the first study of its kind in Georgia since the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Zoonotic disease awareness in animal shelter workers and volunteers and the effect of training.

Animal shelter workers are a vulnerable population whose exposure to zoonotic disease may be greater compared with the general population. The aim of this project was to identify baseline zoonotic disease knowledge of animal shelter workers and to develop and evaluate zoonotic disease awareness training. Ten animal shelters in six western states were randomly selected. One hundred and eleven trainees were evaluated by identical pre- and post-training tests. Training topics included identification of clinical signs, susceptible species, and transmission of disease to animals and to humans. Zoonotic diseases included rabies, plague, leptospirosis, internal parasites, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and salmonella. A statistically significant difference in overall total scores between pre-test (58.5%) and post-test (69.5%) was observed (P = 0.0001). No association was observed between test scores and length of time working in animal shelters, or with the participants' role at the animal shelter. Overall test scores were raised by 11%. The lowest baseline levels of knowledge were found with leptospirosis, MRSA, plague and rabies, emerging diseases with increasing prevalence and high consequence. Zoonotic disease awareness training is a valuable service to animal shelters. In the current study, training was modestly successful in transferring short-term knowledge to animal shelter workers. To understand and evaluate the effectiveness of training completely, observable or measureable behaviours should be compared before and after training. Long-term assessment with measureable outcomes is needed.

Evaluation of DNA extraction techniques for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms in Asian elephant trunk wash samples.

Rapid and sensitive diagnostic assays for the detection of tuberculous mycobacteria in elephants are lacking. DNA extraction with PCR analysis is useful for tuberculosis screening in many species but has not been validated on elephant trunk wash samples. We estimated the analytical sensitivity and specificity of three DNA extraction methods to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms in trunk wash specimens. A ZR soil microbe DNA kit (ZR) and a traditional salt and ethanol precipitation (TSEP) approach were evaluated under three different treatment conditions: heat treatment, phenol treatment, and contamination with Mycobacterium avium. A third approach, using a column filtration method, was evaluated for samples contaminated with soil. Trunk wash samples from uninfected elephants were spiked with various concentrations of M. bovis cells and subjected to the described treatment conditions prior to DNA extraction. Extracted DNA was amplified using IS6110-targeted PCR analysis. The ZR and TSEP methods detected as low as 1 to 5 M. bovis cells and 10 M. bovis cells, respectively, per 1.5 ml of trunk wash under all three conditions. Depending on the amount of soil present, the column filtration method detected as low as 5 to 50 M. bovis cells per 1.5 ml of trunk wash. Analytical specificity was assessed by DNA extraction from species of nontuberculous mycobacteria and amplification using the same PCR technique. Only M. bovis DNA was amplified, indicating 100% analytical specificity of this PCR technique. Our results indicate that these DNA extraction techniques offer promise as useful tests for detection of M. tuberculosis complex organisms in elephant trunk wash specimens.

Environmental sampling for Salmonella spp. in Colorado animal shelters.

Salmonella enterica is an important zoonotic agent and nosocomial infections and epidemics have occurred in animal facilities. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella in the environment in animal shelters. From 12 to 25 samples were taken from each shelter to represent environmental contamination. Samples were collected from surfaces in areas used by animals and in public access areas including animal receiving rooms, kennels, paediatric wards, treatment, visitation rooms, isolation, euthanasia, outdoor runs and play areas, reception rooms, animal transport vehicles, offices, break rooms and restrooms. Samples were tested for Salmonella and compared within shelters to identify high- and low-risk areas; and between shelters to identify differences in environmental contamination by geographical location, infection control policies, and shelter size characteristics. Twenty-eight per cent of sampled Colorado shelters had environmental Salmonella contamination. Two regions in the eastern 1/3 of the state had prevalences of 30% and 100%. Within-shelter sample prevalence ranged from 0 to 100%. Results of this study indicate that animal shelters can be frequently contaminated with Salmonella spp., a variety of Salmonella species may be present, contamination can be widespread within a facility and recovered isolates may harbour antibiotic resistance The findings from this study may influence and help focus educational policy on issues of infection control and zoonotic disease awareness in animal shelters.

A needs-assessment and demographic survey of infection-control and disease awareness in western US animal shelters.

A cross-sectional needs-assessment survey was used to characterize animal shelters in a 6-state region in the western US and describe infection-control practices and disease awareness. Survey questions focused on shelter demographics, infection-control practices and policies, awareness and concern over infectious and zoonotic diseases, staff and volunteer training relating to infection-control and disease awareness, use of diagnostic tools, and isolation procedures and protocols. Fifty percent of shelters responded to the survey and represented a wide variety of shelter types, sizes and locations. The top-three diseases of concern to shelters were feline upper respiratory disease (FURD), canine parvovirus and ringworm. Concern over these diseases was greater in open-admission shelters (compared to limited admission or no-kill/sanctuary) (OR 3.7, 95% CI 1.1-12.5) and in shelters with a desire for more zoonotic-disease training (OR=6.1, 95% CI 1.5-24.8) (compared to shelters desiring infectious-disease training, training on cleaning and disinfection or those who have no need for further training). In 45% of responding shelters many to most animals arrive with infectious diseases. Written protocols for preventive medicine exist in 88% of shelters, cleaning and disinfection protocols in 75%, specific disease protocols for outbreak situations in 36% and infection-control manuals in 15%. Veterinarians are in charge of infection-control in 6% of shelters. Approximately 45% of shelters vaccinate dogs and cats for rabies. Infectious-disease training is provided to 30% of staff and 35% of volunteers upon hire. Overall, volunteers received less training in infectious- and zoonotic-disease identification, prevention and control than staff members. Ninety percent of shelters said they would benefit from training in infectious and zoonotic disease. Results from this study can be used to assess and address needs in animal shelters relating to infection-control, infectious and zoonotic-disease awareness and can help guide development of shelter staff and volunteer training.

A sero-survey of rinderpest in nomadic pastoral systems in central and southern Somalia from 2002 to 2003, using a spatially integrated random sampling approach.

A cross-sectional sero-survey, using a two-stage cluster sampling design, was conducted between 2002 and 2003 in ten administrative regions of central and southern Somalia, to estimate the seroprevalence and geographic distribution of rinderpest (RP) in the study area, as well as to identify potential risk factors for the observed seroprevalence distribution. The study was also used to test the feasibility of the spatially integrated investigation technique in nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoral systems. In the absence of a systematic list of livestock holdings, the primary sampling units were selected by generating random map coordinates. A total of 9,216 serum samples were collected from cattle aged 12 to 36 months at 562 sampling sites. Two apparent clusters of RP seroprevalence were detected. Four potential risk factors associated with the observed seroprevalence were identified: the mobility of cattle herds, the cattle population density, the proximity of cattle herds to cattle trade routes and cattle herd size. Risk maps were then generated to assist in designing more targeted surveillance strategies. The observed seroprevalence in these areas declined over time. In subsequent years, similar seroprevalence studies in neighbouring areas of Kenya and Ethiopia also showed a very low seroprevalence of RP or the absence of antibodies against RP. The progressive decline in RP antibody prevalence is consistent with virus extinction. Verification of freedom from RP infection in the Somali ecosystem is currently in progress.