Defining the nature of human pluripotent stem cell-derived interneurons via single-cell analysis.

The specification of inhibitory neurons has been described for the mouse and human brain, and many studies have shown that pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) can be used to create interneurons in vitro. It is unclear whether in vitro methods to produce human interneurons generate all the subtypes found in brain, and how similar in vitro and in vivo interneurons are. We applied single-nuclei and single-cell transcriptomics to model interneuron development from human cortex and interneurons derived from PSCs. We provide a direct comparison of various in vitro interneuron derivation methods to determine the homogeneity achieved. We find that PSC-derived interneurons capture stages of development prior to mid-gestation, and represent a minority of potential subtypes found in brain. Comparison with those found in fetal or adult brain highlighted decreased expression of synapse-related genes. These analyses highlight the potential to tailor the method of generation to drive formation of particular subtypes.

Identification of neural oscillations and epileptiform changes in human brain organoids.

Brain organoids represent a powerful tool for studying human neurological diseases, particularly those that affect brain growth and structure. However, many diseases manifest with clear evidence of physiological and network abnormality in the absence of anatomical changes, raising the question of whether organoids possess sufficient neural network complexity to model these conditions. Here, we explore the network-level functions of brain organoids using calcium sensor imaging and extracellular recording approaches that together reveal the existence of complex network dynamics reminiscent of intact brain preparations. We demonstrate highly abnormal and epileptiform-like activity in organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells from individuals with Rett syndrome, accompanied by transcriptomic differences revealed by single-cell analyses. We also rescue key physiological activities with an unconventional neuroregulatory drug, pifithrin-α. Together, these findings provide an essential foundation for the utilization of brain organoids to study intact and disordered human brain network formation and illustrate their utility in therapeutic discovery.

Transient muscarinic and glutamatergic stimulation of neural stem cells triggers acute and persistent changes in differentiation.

While aberrant cell proliferation and differentiation may contribute to epileptogenesis, the mechanisms linking an initial epileptic insult to subsequent changes in cell fate remain elusive. Using both mouse and human iPSC-derived neural progenitor/stem cells (NPSCs), we found that a combined transient muscarinic and mGluR1 stimulation inhibited overall neurogenesis but enhanced NPSC differentiation into immature GABAergic cells. If treated NPSCs were further passaged, they retained a nearly identical phenotype upon differentiation. A similar profusion of immature GABAergic cells was seen in rats with pilocarpine-induced chronic epilepsy. Furthermore, live cell imaging revealed abnormal de-synchrony of Ca(++) transients and altered gap junction intercellular communication following combined muscarinic/glutamatergic stimulation, which was associated with either acute site-specific dephosphorylation of connexin 43 or a long-term enhancement of its degradation. Therefore, epileptogenic stimuli can trigger acute and persistent changes in cell fate by altering distinct mechanisms that function to maintain appropriate intercellular communication between coupled NPSCs.

Cooperativity and complementarity: synergies in non-classical and classical glucocorticoid signaling.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are an ubiquitous class of steroid hormones that exert a wide array of physiological effects. Traditionally, GC action has been considered to primarily involve transcriptional effects following the binding of hormone to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and subsequent activation or repression of target genes. However, a number of findings suggest that cellular responses following GC exposure may be mediated by transcription-independent, or "non-classical," mechanisms. We have added to this growing body of work by recently uncovering a novel GC signaling pathway that operates through plasma membrane GRs to limit gap junction intercellular signaling and limit the proliferation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs). In this review, we highlight our current state of knowledge of non-classical GR signaling, in particular as it applies to neuronal function. Using NPCs as a cellular model, we speculate on the components of this non-classical pathway and the mechanisms whereby a number of cytoplasmic and nuclear signaling events may be integrated.